The topic of segregation is presented in numerous formats on the World Wide Web. The Remembering Jim Crow homepage provides a concise description which I will use as a basis in this discussion. The site explains that, “for much of the 20th century, African Americans in the South were barred from the voting booth, sent to the back of the bus, and walled off from many of the rights they deserved as American citizens. Until well into the 1960s, segregation was legal. The system was called Jim Crow.” The five sites selected for this review essay represent a variety of on-line approaches to the study of this period in American history. Two sites center around museum and photo exhibitions both of which house disturbing and controversial images, one site focuses on documenting stories, one on history resources for teachers, and the final site centers around memory or remembering legalized segregation (i.e. Jim Crow). Presentation and new media components range from basic digital formats to more sophisticated forms of new media. Funding sources and sponsorship influence the content, use of media, intended audience, and quality of the sites. Intended audiences include teachers, historians, scholars, students, and the general public. Remembering segregation as a comprehensive and brutal, system that required the complicity of ordinary white Americans is woven through all of the sites. For example, the photo documentary Without Sanctuary: Lynching Photography in America website reveals the active and passive participation of white Americans in mob murders of black men, women, and children.
Available resources on the web are just a click away. The breadth,
not necessarily depth, of the resources is one thing that distinguishes the
digital format from print and other formats. Virtual museum exhibitions and
photo presentations that could otherwise be difficult to access provide illustrations
of the gains and losses in a Web based format. Visitors to the Jim
Crow Museum of Racist Memorabilia are only admitted with a class, workshop,
or structured group. Further, specially trained facilitators must be present
so that sensitive materials/issues are appropriately discussed. The non-digital
museum visit allows the curator to control and influence the experience of the
visitor. The objectives and values of the museum are a core part of actual visits
to the museum, insuring that the context and intent are clear. The on-line presentation
of the museum does not allow for these controls; therefore, the values and intentions
of the website and the museum can be ignored or overlooked by virtual visitors.
Misinterpretations and misuse of materials are more likely in this case. Of
particular concern is the extensive collection of photos showing offensive black
caricatures and memorabilia which can easily be downloaded for other uses. Lev
Manovich discusses how automation in new media is used to manipulate images.
In one example, he explains that “software for image editing” like
Photoshop can be used to “modify an image, from creating simple variations
of color to changing the whole image.” (p. 32). The curator of the Jim
Crow Museum site intentionally blurred and cropped some photos to discourage
misuse. On the other hand, visitors to the website can take advantage of more
comprehensive information not offered in the museum, potentially gaining more
knowledge than they would in a one or two hour museum visit. Rosenzweig and
O’Malley suggest that “aspects of web technology hint that the ‘virtual
museum’ may eventually do some things better than its real counterparts.”
(p.15, Brave New World). Additional benefits to web based history include gaining
access to works in progress, participating in self-paced simulations, and invitations
to respond to content or critique their experience enabling words the user to
become an active participant and contributor to the site.
Anchored by the Fall 2002 PBS special “The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow,”
the History of Jim Crow website
seeks to “Explore the complex African-American experience of segregation
from the 1870s through the 1950s.” The site is targeted specifically towards
educators. The homepage informs teachers about a guide which will “provide
a series of links that will lead you and your students to resources on this
site that will prepare them for the program and enrich their viewing experience.”
This site also appeals to a broad audience (i.e. general public, university
students, and scholars interested in history particularly, African American
History).
Funded in part by New York Life, the History of Jim Crow is a carefully constructed,
well funded site. The New York Life logo is incorporated throughout the site.
George P. Landow explains that hypertext “create text that is experienced
as nonlinear, or more properly, as multilinear or multisequential.” (p.1).
While common to all sites, hypertextuality is most effectively and extensively
used in the History of Jim Crow site. The homepage opens with an introductory
overlay which provides an overview of the PBS special, as well as links to a
teachers guide to the series. From this page users are oriented to the site,
and can read an excellent historical overview about segregation in America.
The series is organized into four historical timeframes encouraging teachers
to link to each program to find a historical overview, lesson plans, and links
to key people, definitions, and events that occurred during that particular
period. The homepage and subsequent pages are straightforward and easy to navigate.
Each page includes a menu with links to: Television, History, Geography, American
Literature, Teachers Resources, and Home. Additionally, users can link to Narratives,
Image Gallery, an Encyclopedia, and an invitation to “Join Us.”
The navigability through this comprehensive site is impressive. For example,
from Television
users can drill down through Program I, click on “Lynchings” and
link to multiple pages including the United States map. The map allows users
to link to specific information about a particular lynching in a particular
state. Hypertexuality is prevalent throughout the site.
The History of Jim Crow site contains well researched essays, lesson plans, teacher resources, and opportunities to participate. Lesson plans were designed by teachers from around the country. Each lesson plan contains an overview of the topic, the time required to complete the activity, curriculum standards, materials needed, and links to keywords and people. Scholarly essays represent diverse themes and perspectives. Bibliographies and author biographies suggest selectivity; many of the authors are university professors. “Passing for White in Jim Crow America” by Wendy Anne Gaudin, a Professor of History links to an oral history project containing personal accounts from people who “passed” as white.
In Hamlet on the Holodeck, Janet Murray envisions cybernarratives in which users
are actively involved participants, immersed in the story. (pp.98-99) While
none of the sites contain hi-tech interactive opportunities, several invite
users participate in other ways. The History of Jim Crow and Remembering Jim
Crow sites offer opportunities to participate in decision making simulations,
document analysis, writing workshops, and sharing stories and opinions. The
Remembering Jim Crow site provides a more controlled environment for contributions.
In order to share stories users must complete an extensive agreement form. Over
sixty user stories are posted. Differing from traditional formats, digital environments
allow on-going contributions and interaction between the participants.
The Without Sanctuary: Lynching Photography in America website reveals the inhumane and gruesome practice of white mobs lynching blacks during the Jim Crow era in America. Hosted by the Musarium (formerly Journal E) an on-line magazine which publishes photo essays and collections, Without Sanctuary features 81 photograph and postcard images of mostly black men, women, and children lynched at the hands of white mobs. The owner and curator, James Allen, asserts that, “Without Sanctuary is a photo document of proof, an unearthing of crimes, of collective mass murder, of mass memory graves excavated from the American conscience.” This crime must never happen again. An antique dealer and author of the companion book, Allen intends to show how white citizens participated in these murders, seeing lynching as cause for celebration. As part of the celebration, postcards and photos of the lynched victims were sold as souvenirs. Similar to the Jim Crow Museum, the collector becomes the curator, and maintains hands-on involvement in every aspect of the presentation. Both owners seem personally attached to the exhibitions; they write most of the essays, serve as narrators, and include excerpts from their interviews. Essays from other scholars are scarce.
Manovich asserts that “a new media object is not something fixed once and for all, but something can exist in different, potentially infinite versions.” (p. 36). He adds that new media “is characterized by variability.” (p.36). Multiple forms of variability can be seen in Without Sanctuary which opens with a flash movie of a single photo, followed by a written statement from the curator. The scalability of the photo is an example of how “different versions of the same object can be generated at various sizes or levels of detail.” (p. 39, Manovich). Users can view a longer flash movie with narration by Allen. The viewer is alerted that depending on the speed of the modem the download time could take as long as 8 minutes or as quickly as 20 seconds. In line with the audience of Musarium, the narrator comments on the photographic production and reproduction of the images. Users can also view the photographs as slides. The photographic exhibition includes labels featuring the name, date and location of the lynching. “More information” inks to a detailed description of the circumstances surrounding the murder. Users are encouraged to participate in the site by commenting “on the experience of viewing these images” and submitting photographs through e-mail links. Viewer comments positively contribute to the goals of the site. A diverse audience submitted hundreds of responses dating back to February 2000. Some respondents commented on earlier entries, creating a more interactive environment.
Te navigation of Without Sanctuary is straightforward. Of concern is that homepage connections link back to the Musarium site, not Without Sanctuary site. The opening flash movie can not be returned to from within the site; users must restart to view the opening segment. Related links are not easy to find; users must first click onto exhibit schedule. Here users can see the schedule of the exhibition showing at the Martin Luther King National Historic site. From this link users can find related newspaper articles, co-sponsored by Emory University, and a reading room section. These important contributions can easily be overlooked because the link is misleading. The Martin Luther King exhibition provides a more in depth look at the history of lynching, anti-lynching activists, and the work of the NAACP. Another useful site sponsored by the Associated Press depicts land as a motive for some lynchings. Entitled, “Torn From the Land,” this site includes photographs, audio and video.
American Radioworks (Minnesota Public Radio) in cooperation with the Center for Documentary Studies at Duke University developed the on-line documentary Remembering Jim Crow based on a book by Stephen Smith, Kate Ellis, and Sasha Aslania. The site seeks to hear the voices of ordinary Americans both black and white by allowing them to share their memories about life under Jim Crow. Similar to other sites, this on-line documentary focuses primarily on legal segregation in the American South. Presented in six sections: Bitter Times; Danger, Violence, Exploitation; Communities “Behind the Veil”; Keeping the Past; Resistance; and Whites Remember Jim Crow; additional links invite users to learn More on Jim Crow; access Resources; Share Your Story and Read Personal Histories; Purchase the book; and visit a Related Documentary (Radio Fights Jim Crow). Each of the six major sections include a brief narrative on the topic, slide shows featuring photos of people who observed, experienced or were activists in the fight against segregation. Jim Crow laws, listed by state, show how the liberties of African Americans were restricted in every area of life (i.e. education, entertainment, freedom of speech, health care, housing, libraries, marriage, services, transportation, and work). Users can hear the voices of ordinary people sharing their personal stories, hear songs, and view more than ten slide presentations. The slide presentations feature period and current photos of black and white individuals who lived in the segregated South, as well as broader themes around Jim Crow. Excellent photos are included; unfortunately, the selected photos are often not representative of theme, and do not contain adequate text to assist the viewer in understanding the story. Most of the photos are from a collection focusing on black tenant farmers. For example, in the Whites Only slide presentation under the Bitter Times section two slides show whites only signs; the remaining slides are of poor tenant farmers. This incongruence is found in many of the slide presentations. These examples raise concerns about the accuracy of interpretation of materials posted on Web. Vernon Takeshita would view this misinterpretation as an example of why students should not rely on the Web for historical research. (p. 4, Tangled) The Behind the Veil presentation is the one exception; the photos reflect the theme (i.e. pictures of people at church, celebrations, segregated signs, tenant farmers, children playing, family, school, recreation).
The Jim Crow Museum of Racist Memorabilia and website housed at Ferris State University in Michigan seeks to “promote racial tolerance by helping people understand the historical and contemporary expressions of intolerance.” Unlike other sites, this site is not funded by large grants, corporations or philanthropic organizations. The homepage features a photo of diverse students examining artifacts at the museum. Users can click on to Enter bringing links to: Take a Virtual Tour, Contact the Curator, Read New Essay, Objectives of the museum, Radio Interview with the Curator, More Images, Home, and a table with links to numerous additional pages. Hundreds of images, links to a radio interview, and a virtual tour of the museum are easy to assess. Unlike the slide presentation in Without Sanctuary, the images in this site have no accompanying text which leaves room for misinterpretation and misuse. Scalability of images varies when clicked onto by the user. The virtual tour was incomplete. Dr. David Pilgrim, a professor of sociology, curates and owns the collection. He wrote most of the essays contained in the site. These essays provide a historical and social analysis of selected black caricatures. Images of these disturbing stereotypes can also be accessed from links within the essays. Controversies surrounding the exhibitions have led to restricted access to the museum; this is not feasible on the Web. To address this concern on the web, Pilgrim incorporates explanations of “our values”, objectives, and frequently asked questions; insisting that the museum is not intended to promote racism. Related Links connect to dozens of websites. Pilgrim is successful in helping people to understand the “historical and contemporary expressions of intolerance”; of concern is the potential for misuse of this information.
Behind the
Veil a project documenting African American Life in the Jim Crow South “represents
an effort to correct historical misrepresentations of African American experiences
during the period of legal segregation in the United States.” This on-going
oral history project is in collaboration with several colleges and universities.
An opening quote from W. E. B. DuBois, captures the essence of the theme. Based
at Duke University and partially funded by NEH this project is co-directed by
historians. The oral history collection is being organized for eventual posting.
The site does not contain an extensive collection of essays or links to other
websites. A news bulletin and articles about the project are written by project
faculty and staff. The site contains a useful bibliography; however, further
links are not available. Elements of new media are most impressive on the homepage
and in the photographic
archive. Navigability is sometimes problematic. For example, there are no
links from Remembering Jim Crow to the main page. A link, from the photo gallery
to “more about behind the veil,” takes the user to an older version
of the website, which is not linked to the main page. Despite these glitches,
the project is impressive and the website will ultimately serve as a useful
research tool.
Collectively, these sites provide an in depth study of this period in American
History. Legal segregation is presented as an unfortunate chapter in American
history that must be remembered to insure that it does not happen again. Voices
of ordinary people dominate; indeed, prominent figures are not the focus of
these sites. Through the use of new media, users gain access to a wide range
of useful information. Hypertexuality allows users to make choices about the
direction of their research. Useful to a wide audience, historians and students
of history will find these sites particularly beneficial. As with any format,
website users are responsible for critiquing, analyzing, and assessing the quality
of the information.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
__________
Behind the Veil
http://cds.aas.duke.edu/btv/btvindex.htm
Reviewed September 26 – 27; October 4 & 5, 2002
George P. Landow, “The Definition of Hypertext and Its History as a Concept” http://www.cyberartsweb.org/cpace/ht/jhup/history.html
Lev Manovich, “What is New Media,” chapter one of The Language
of New Media
(2001)
Murray, Janet. Hamlet on the Holodeck: The Future of Narrative in Cyberspace. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1997.
Mike O’Malley and Roy Rosenzweig, “Brave New World or Blind Alley? American History on the World Wide Web.” Journal of American History, (June 1997) http://chnm.gmu.edu/assets/historyessays/e1/bravenewworld1.html
Remembering Jim Crow
http://americanradioworks.org/features/remembering/index.html
Reviewed September 27 & 30; October 2, 2002
The History of Jim Crow
http://www.jimcrowhistory.org
Reviewed September 26 – 27; October 2 & 5, 2002
The Jim Crow Museum on Racist Memorabilia
http://ferris.edu/news/jimcrow
Reviewed September 26; October 4&5, 2002
Vernon Takeshita, “Tangled Webs: The Limits of Historical Analysis on the Internet” http://www.dartmouth.edu/~history/newletter/spring01/web.html
Without Sanctuary: Lynching Photography in America
http://www.journale.com/withoutsanctuary
Reviewed October 2, 4 & 5, 2002