Content Evaluation Reference

Types of content:

Content Type	Definition	Example
Fact	Specific and Unique Data or Instance	The company logon screen: My Password is jsmith
Concept	A category that includes multiple examples	What is a web page password
Process	A flow of events or activities	Performance appraisal process
Procedure	Task performed with step-by-step actions	How to logon
Principle	Task performed by adapting guidelines	How to close a sale

Types of learning goals:

Goal	Definition	Example
Inform	Lessons that communicate information	· Company history · New product features
Perform-Procedure	Lessons that build procedural skills (near transfer)	· How to log on · How to complete an expense report
Perform-Principle	Lessons that build principle-based skills (far transfer)	· How to close a sale · How to design a web page

Common pitfalls of online learning:

Pitfall	Result
Failure to define job knowledge and skills	Lessons do not build knowledge and skills that transfer to the job
Failure to accommodate learning processes	Lessons overload cognitive processes and learning is disrupted
Attrition	Learners do not complete their instruction

Lesson types:

Type	Builds Lessons that	Used for
Receptive: Information Acquisition	Include lots of information with limited practice opportunities	Inform Goals
Directive: Response Strengthening	Require frequent responses from learners with immediate feedback	Perform-Procedure Goals
Guided Discovery: Knowledge Construction	Provide job-realistic problems and supporting resources	Perform-Principle Goals

How do people learn from e-courses?

Premise: Design of online learning courses should be based on a cognitive theory of how people learn and on a scientifically valid research studies

Cognitive Learning Theory Key Ideas of how People Learn:

1. Human memory has two channels for processing information: visual and auditory
2. Human memory has limited capacity for processing information
3. Learning occurs by active processing in the memory system
4. New knowledge and skills must be retrieved from long-term memory for transfer to the job

How e-Lessons Affect Human Learning:

1. Selection of the important information in the lesson
1. Use arrow, type, dingbat, color to draw attention to important information
2. Use a list of learning objectives
3. Reference learning objectives throughout lessons
2. Management of the limited capacity in working memory to allow the rehearsal needed for learning
1. Reduce cognitive load – see chapters 4-7

i. Minimize irrelevant visuals, omit background music, use succinct text

ii. Less is More!

iii. Minimalist approach avoids overloading working memory leaving greater capacity available for rehearsal processes leading to learning

3. Integration of auditory and visual sensory information in working memory with existing knowledge in long-term memory by way of rehearsal in working memory
1. Integrate words and visuals by presenting text and graphics together instead of separated
2. Include opportunities for students to process information provided in working memory through practice assignments, examples
4. Retrieval of new knowledge and skills from long-term memory into working memory when needed later
1. New knowledge must be encoded into long-term memory in a way that allows it to be easily retrieved on the job
2. For this to occur, lessons must incorporate context of the job in the examples and practice exercises

i. A thought problem in correct context more effective than Jeopardy game

5. Management of all of these processes via metacognitive skills
1. Not all students will have fully functional and developed metacognitive skills
2. Those lacking skills will profit from training that provides the learners with the goal setting, monitoring and learning support they cannot provide for themselves

i. Self-checks can monitor progress

ii. Navigational options

Online learning principles:

Principle	Concept
Multimedia Principle Use words and graphics rather than words alone	Key here is to add relevant graphics
Contiguity Principle Place corresponding words and graphics near each other	Integrated text and graphics reduces the need to search for which parts of a graphic correspond to which words allowing the user to concentrate on understanding the materials
Modality Principle Present words as audio narration rather than onscreen text	When audio is feasible, there can be an advantage because user can use two channels to process information
Redundancy Principle Presenting words in both text and audio narration can hurt learning	Studies have shown audio alone works better than audio and redundant onscreen text
Coherence Principle Adding interesting material can hurt learning	Adding interesting but unnecessary material to online learning can harm the learning process through: Distraction Disruption Seduction
Personalization Principle Use conversational style and virtual coaches	Empirical evidence supports a conversational style of writing that uses first-and second-person language is better than formal style It induces the learner to engage with the computer as a social conversational partner

Incorporating practice and examples:

Practice	Psychological advantage of including frequent job-relevant practice is that it provides multiple overt rehearsal opportunities for working memory that result in encoding in LTM
Examples	Worked example is a step-by-step demonstration of how to solve a problem or perform a task. Recent research indicates this can be more effective than practice exercises. Advantage of worked examples is that they reduce mental work
Collaboration	Summarize empirical evidence regarding features of collaborative assignments that contribute to classroom learning and suggest how proven classroom collaboration activities could be adapted to online learning environments

Online learning interactions based on content type:

Content Type	Interaction Description	Example: Web Page Creation
Fact	Use the fact to complete a task. Provide a job aid for memory support.	Use the codes on your reference aid to access the application.
Concept	Identify a new instance of the concept.	Select the Web page that applies effective design features.
Process	Solve a problem or make a prediction	Predict the impact of a miscoded page property specification on the final Web page output
Procedure	Perform a task by following steps.	Select the text font from the pull-down menu.
Principle	Perform a task by applying guidelines.	Design an effective Web page.

Source: Clark, R.C., & Mayer, R.E. (2003). Online learning and the Science of Instruction. San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons.