Solid and Hazardous Waste
EVPP 111
Dr. Largen
There is no "away": Love Canal
Between 1942 and 1953, Hooker Chemicals and Plastics
sealed chemical wastes containing at least 200 different chemicals into steel drums
dumped them into an old canal excavation near Niagara Falls, NY
- called Love Canal after its builder, William Love
There is no "away": Love Canal
In 1953, Hooker Chemicals
filled the canal
covered it with clay and topsoil
sold it to the Niagara Falls School Board for $1
- they inserted into the deed a disclaimer denying legal liability for any injury caused by the wastes
In 1957, Hooker Chemicals
warned the school board not to disturb the clay cap because of the possible danger from toxic wastes
There is no "away": Love Canal
By 1959,
an elementary school, playing fields and 949 homes had been built in the 10 square block Love Canal area
roads and sewer lines criss-crossed the dump site
- some of them disrupting the clay cap covering the wastes
There is no "away": Love Canal
In the 1960’s
an expressway was built at one end of the dump
- blocking groundwater from migrating to the Niagara River
- allowing contaminated groundwater and rain water to build up and overflow the disrupted cap
There is no "away": Love Canal
In 1976
residents began complaining to city officials about
- chemical smells
- chemical burns their children received playing in the canal area
but the complaints were ignored
There is no "away": Love Canal
In 1977
chemicals began leaking from badly corroded steel drums into
- storm sewers
- gardens
- basements of homes next to the canal
- the school playground
There is no "away": Love Canal
In 1978
after much media publicity and pressure from residents
- led by Lois Gibbs, a mother galvanized into action after watching her children come down with illness after illness
the state acted
- closed the school
- arranged for the 239 closest to the dump to be evacuated, purchased and destroyed
There is no "away": Love Canal
In 1980
after protests from families still living fairly close to the dump, President Carter
- declared Love Canal a federal disaster area
- had the remaining families relocated
- offered federal funds to buy 564 more homes
residents of all by 72 homes moved out
- some of those who remained claimed that
- the entire problem was exaggerated by other residents, environmentalists and the media
There is no "away": Love Canal
In 1994
after more than 15 years of court cases, Oxy-Chem (who purchased Hooker Chemical in 1968) agreed to
- pay a $98 million settlement to New York State
- be responsible for all future treatment of wastes and wastewater at the Love Canal site
In 1999
Oxy-Chem agreed to reimburse the federal government and New York State $7.1 million for the Love Canal cleanup
There is no "away": Love Canal
Because of the difficulty linking exposure to a variety of chemicals to specific health effects
the long term health effects of exposure to hazardous chemicals on Love Canal
- remain unknown and controversial
evacuated families will probably forever worry about the possible effects of the chemicals on themselves, their children and their grandchildren
There is no "away": Love Canal
The dumpsite has been
covered with a new clay cap
surrounded by a drainage system that pumps leaking wastes to a new treatment plant
There is no "away": Love Canal
In 1990, the EPA allowed state officials to begin selling 234 of the remaining houses at 10-20% below market value
buyers must sign an agreement stating that New York State and the federal government make no guarantees or representations about the safety of living in these homes
most of the houses have sold
There is no "away": Love Canal
Love Canal is a vivid reminder that
we can never really throw anything away
wastes do not stay put
preventing pollution is much safer and cheaper than trying ot clean it up
What is solid waste?
Solid waste is
any unwanted or discarded material that isn’t liquid or gas
Disposable Decades
- In the mid 1950’s a disposable lifestyle was marketed as the wave of the future, and as a way to reduce household duties.
- Consumerism began in earnest following WWII.
- Convenience was sold to prosperous post-war consumers. "Convenience" was quickly changed to necessity.
How much solid waste is produced?
Solid waste production
33% of world’s solid waste is produced by the US
even though we have only ~5% of world’s population
How much solid waste is produced?
Solid waste production by source in US
97.5% comes from mining, oil and gas production, agriculture and industry
- collectively, these sources produce ~55 times as much solid waste as household activities
- 75% - mining and oil and gas production
- 13% - agriculture
- 9.5% - industry
1% comes from sewage sludge
1.5% from municipal solid waste
How much solid waste is produced?
Municipal solid waste
is from homes and businesses in or near urban areas
often called garbage
~506 billion pounds produced annually in US
- nearly twice as much as in 1970
- enough to fill a bumper-to-bumper convoy of trucks that could encircle the globe 8 times
- amounts to an average of 1,800 pounds per capita per year
- which is the highest per capita solid waste production in the world
- and many times the rate of production in developing countries
How much solid waste is produced?
Municipal solid waste
composed of
- ~39% paper and paperboard
- ~13% yard waste
- ~10% food waste
- ~10% plastics
- ~8% metals
- ~5% glass
- ~5% wood
- ~10% other
How much solid waste is produced?
Municipal solid waste
proportions of solid waste in municipal solid waste change over time
- the amount of plastic waste has increased ~10% each year for the past 20 years
- amounts glass sand steel have declined
Living in a high-waste society
Some of the solid wastes discards by US consumers
per hour
2.5 million nonreturnable plastic bottles
every three months
enough aluminum to rebuild entire US commercial airline fleet
per year
2 billion disposable razors
19 million computers
17 billion pounds of polystyrene packaging peanuts
1.5 billion pounds of edible food
What is hazardous waste?
In US, hazardous waste is legally defined as any solid or liquid material that
contains one or more of 39 toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic, or teratogenic compounds at levels that exceed established limits
- includes many solvents, pesticides, paint thinners
catches fire easily
- gasoline, paints, solvents
is reactive or unstable enough to explode to release toxic fumes
- acids, bases, ammonia, chloride
is capable of corroding metal containers such as tanks, drums, and barrels
- industrial cleaning agents, oven and drain cleaners
What is NOT hazardous waste?
This official definition of hazardous waste, mandated by Congress, does NOT include
radioactive wastes
hazardous and toxic materials discarded by households
mining wastes
oil- and gas-drilling wastes
- which are routinely discharged into surface waters or dumped into unlined pits and landfills
liquid wastes containing organic hydrocarbon compounds
- accounts for ~80% of all liquid hazardous wastes
cement kiln dust
- produced when liquid hazardous wastes are burned in a cement kiln
wastes from thousands of small businesses and factories that generate less than 100 kilograms (220 pounds) of hazardous waste per month
How much hazardous waste is covered by hazardous waste laws??
In the US, ~95of the country’s hazardous waste is NOT regulated by the hazardous waste laws
- In most other countries (especially developing countries), little, if any, of the hazardous waste is regulated
How much hazardous waste is produced?
75% of world’s hazardous waste is produced in the US
~ 12 trillion pounds of hazardous waste are produced annually
- an average of 43,000 pounds per capita
by source
- the two industries releasing the largest quantities of toxic chemicals into the environment
- mining
- accounting for nearly 50% of US’s total
- electric power plants
- accounting for ~15% of US’s total
Dealing with waste
Two ways to deal with solid and hazardous waste
waste management
waste prevention (pollution prevention)
Dealing with waste
waste management
is a high-waste approach
- views waste production as an unavoidable product of economic growth
- attempts to manage the resulting wastes in ways that reduce environmental harm, mostly by
- burying
- burning
- transferring them form one environmental to another
- shipping wastes to another state or country
Dealing with waste
waste prevention (pollution prevention)
is a low-waste approach
- recognizes there is no "away"
- views most solid and hazardous waste either
- as potential resources
- that we should be recycling, composting, or reusing
- as harmful substances that we should not be using in the first place
focuses on
- discouraging waste production
- encouraging waste prevention
Dealing with waste
waste prevention (pollution prevention)
has the following hierarchy of goals
- reduce
- waste and pollution
- reuse
- as many things as possible
- recycle and compost
- as much waste as possible
- chemically or biologically treat or incinerate
- waste that can’t be reduced, reused, recycled, composted
- bury
- what is left in state-of-the-art landfills or above ground vaults
- only after the first four goals have been met
Dealing with waste
waste prevention (pollution prevention)
it is estimated that in a low-waste society
- 60-80% of the solid and hazardous waste produced could be eliminated through
- reduction, reuse, recycling
- redesign of manufacturing processes and buildings
Solutions: How can we reduce waste and pollution?
Scientists have suggested a series of priorities for dealing with material use and solid waste
organized into
primary pollution and waste prevention
2nd priority
secondary pollution and waste prevention
last priority
waste management
Solutions: How can we reduce waste and pollution?
priorities for dealing with material use and solid waste
1st priority: primary pollution and waste prevention
- change industrial processes to eliminate use of harmful chemicals
- purchase different products
- use less of a harmful product
- reduce packaging and materials in products
- make products that last longer and are recyclable, reusable, easy to repair
Solutions: How can we reduce waste and pollution?
priorities for dealing with material use and solid waste
2nd priority: secondary pollution and waste prevention
- reuse products
- repair products
- recycle
- compost
- buy reusable and recyclable products
Solutions: How can we reduce waste and pollution?
priorities for dealing with material use and solid waste
last priority: waste management
- treat waste to reduce toxicity
- incinerate waste
- bury wastes in landfills
- release waste into environment for dispersal or dilution
Solutions: How can we reduce waste and pollution?
priorities for dealing with material use and solid waste
currently this order of priorities is reversed in the US (and most other countries)
Solutions: How can we reduce waste and pollution?
Ways to reduced resource use, waste and pollution
decrease consumption
do more with less
develop products that are easy to repair, reuse, recycle
design products to last longer
eliminate or reduce unnecessary packaging
impose trash taxes
Solutions: How can we reduce waste and pollution?
Ways to reduced resource use, waste and pollution
decrease consumption
- before any purchase, ask questions such as
- do I really need this
- can I buy it second hand
- can I borrow or lease it
Solutions: How can we reduce waste and pollution?
Ways to reduced resource use, waste and pollution
do more with less by
- redesigning manufacturing processes and products to
- use less material and energy per unit of output
Solutions: How can we reduce waste and pollution?
Ways to reduced resource use, waste and pollution
develop products that are easy to repair, reuse, remanufacture, recycle, or compost
- this can also be good for the manufacturer
- a photocopier designed by Xerox with every part reusable or recyclable for easy remanufacturing is estimated to save the company ~$1 billion in manufacturing costs
Solutions: How can we reduce waste and pollution?
Ways to reduced resource use, waste and pollution
design products to last longer
- for example, researchers believe tires could be produced that would last nearly twice as long as existing tires
Solutions: How can we reduce waste and pollution?
Ways to reduced resource use, waste and pollution
eliminate or reduce unnecessary packaging
designers, manufacturers and consumers should ask the following questions about packaging
is it necessary
can it use fewer materials
can it be reused
are the resources that went into it nonrenewable or renewable
does it contain the highest feasible amount of recycled materials
is it designed to be recycled easily
can it be incinerated without producing harmful air pollutants or toxic ash
can it be buried and decomposed in a landfill without producing chemicals that can contaminate groundwater
Solutions: How can we reduce waste and pollution?
Ways to reduced resource use, waste and pollution
impose trash taxes
- to encourage reduction in waste generation
Recycling
Recycling
has a number of benefits to people and the environment
there are two types of recycling for materials such as glass, metals, paper, plastics
- primary recycling (closed-loop recycling)
- secondary (open-loop recycling)
Recycling
primary recycling (closed-loop recycling)
wastes discarded by consumers (postconsumer wastes) are recycled to produce new products of the same type
- such as newspaper to newspaper
- aluminum cans to aluminum cans
reduces the amount of virgin materials in a product by 20-90%
reduces pollution
saves energy
Recycling
secondary recycling (open-loop recycling)
wastes discarded by consumers (postconsumer wastes) are converted into different and usually lower quality products
reduces the amount of virgin materials in a product by ~25%
reduces pollution
saves energy
Recycling
A material that is a good candidate for recycling is
easily isolated from other wastes
available in large quantities in a fairly uniform form
valuable
Recycling
Environmentalists warn us not to be misled by labels claiming that certain items are recyclable
just about anything can be recycled
what counts is
- whether an item is actually recycled
- whether we complete the recycling loop by buying products using the maximum feasible content of postconsumer recycled materials
Recycling MSW in the US
In 1999, ~27% of the MSW in the US was recycled or composted
the highest rate of any industrialized country
US has ~8,000 municipal curbside recycling programs serving ~51% of the population, recycling
Recycling MSW in the US
US recycling programs recycle
~98% of steel used in cars
96% of car batteries
~74% of aluminum cans
~70% of lead
~49% of wastepaper and paperboard
~40% of yard waste
~27% of glass containers
Recycling MSW in the US
Large-scale recycling can be accomplished by
collecting mixed urban waste and
transporting it to centralized materials-recovery facilities (MRFs) where
- machines shred and automatically separate the mixed waste
- to recover valuable materials for sale to manufacturers as raw materials
- remaining paper, plastics and other combustible waste are recycled or burned
- to produce steam or electricity to run the recovery plant or to sell
Recycling MSW in the US
materials-recovery facilities (MRFs)
are expensive to build and maintain
can emit toxic air pollutants
can produce a toxic ash that must be properly disposed of
must have a large input of garbage to make them financially successful
Recycling MSW in the US
Source separation of solid wastes for recycling
many experts argue that it makes for sense economically and environmentally for households and businesses to separate recyclables
- which are then
- picked up by compartmentalized collection trucks
- or delivered by consumer to a network of drop-off centers
Recycling MSW in the US
Source separation of solid wastes for recycling
this approach
- produces little air and water pollution
- has low start-up costs
- has moderate operating costs
- saves more energy and provides more jobs per unit of material than MRFs, landfills, incinerators
- yields cleaner and usually more valuable recyclables
- educates people about the need for waste reduction, reuse and recycling
Recycling MSW in the US
Does recycling make economic sense?
Answer depends on different ways of looking at economic and environmental benefits and costs of recycling
- can consider what is said by
- critics
- proponents
Recycling MSW in the US
Does recycling make economic sense?
Critics say recycling
- has become almost a religion that is above criticism regardless of how much is costs communities
- does not make sense if it costs more to recycle materials than it does to send then to a landfill or to incinerate them
- often is not needed to save landfill space because that space is not limited in some parts of the US
- may make economic sense for valuable and easy-to-recycle materials (aluminum, paper, steel) but not for cheap or plentiful resources (glass) or plastics (which are expensive to recycle)
Recycling MSW in the US
Does recycling make economic sense?
proponents say recycling
- programs should not be judged on whether they pay for themselves any more than are conventional landfill or incineration systems
- has as its primary benefit not the reduction in use of landfills or incineration but in the other important benefits its provides for people and the environment
- benefits (economic, health, environmental) outweigh costs
- programs with a single pickup (recyclables and garbage) and pay-as-you-throw systems make more money and have higher recycling rates
Recycling MSW in the US
Why don’t we have more reuse and recycling?
Three factors hinder recycling and reuse
- failure to include environmental and health costs of raw materials in the market prices of consumer items
- existence of more tax breaks and subsidies for resource extraction industries than for recycling and reuse industries
- lack of large, steady markets for recycled materials
Recycling MSW in the US
Why don’t we have more reuse and recycling?
Suggestions for overcoming these obstacles
- taxing virgin resources and phasing out subsidies and tax breaks for extracting virgin resources
- lowering or eliminating taxes on recycled materials based on postconsumer waste content
- providing subsidies for reuse and postconsumer waste recycling
- increasing use of pay-as-you-throw systems
Recycling MSW in the US
Why don’t we have more reuse and recycling?
Suggestions for overcoming these obstacles (continued)
- encouraging or requiring government purchases of recycled and reused products to help increase demand and lower prices
- viewing landfilling and incinerating of solid waste as last resorts
- requiring labels on all products listing pre- and postconsumer recycled content
Recycling aluminum, paper & plastics in the US
How much aluminum is being recycled?
60% of US aluminum comes from virgin ore
- process uses enormous amounts of energy
- contributes to air and water pollution
40% of US aluminum comes recycled aluminum
- uses 95% less energy than mining and processing virgin ore
- produces 95% less air pollution than mining
- produces 97% less water pollution
Recycling aluminum, paper & plastics in the US
How much aluminum is being recycled?
In 2000, 74% of aluminum beverage cans in US were recycled
- the remaining 26% of the cans that weren’t recycled would, if laid end to end, form a chain that would wrap around the earth more than 120 times
even though aluminum can recycling rate is good
some environmentalists believe aluminum beverage cans are an unnecessary item that could be replaced by more energy-efficient and less polluting refillable containers
Recycling aluminum, paper & plastics in the US
How much paper is being recycled?
Paper (especially newspaper and cardboard) is one of easiest materials to recycle
- recycling process requires
- removing ink, glue, coatings
- reconverting to pulp
- pressing into new paper
Recycling aluminum, paper & plastics in the US
How much paper is being recycled?
In 2000, US recycled
- ~49% of its wastepaper (up from 25% in 1989)
- ~70% of its corrugated cardboard
globally, paper recycling rate is ~43%
Recycling aluminum, paper & plastics in the US
Recycling paper
does not involve cutting new trees
saves energy because it takes ~30-64% less energy to produce the same weight of recycled paper as to make the paper from trees
reduces air pollution from pulp mills by 74-95%
lowers water pollution by ~35%
helps prevent groundwater contamination by toxic ink left after paper rots in landfills over a 30- to 60-year period
conserves large quantities of water
takes little or no bleaching because fibers have been bleached before
can save landfill space
creates 5 times more jobs than harvesting trees
Recycling aluminum, paper & plastics in the US
Preconsumer versus pastconsumer waste
preconsumer waste
- scraps and cuttings recovered from paper and printing plants
postconsumer waste
- waste intercepted on its way from consumer to landfill or incinerator
Recycling aluminum, paper & plastics in the US
Buying recycled paper products
saves trees
saves energy
reduces pollution
reduces solid waste
- ONLY if the products are made from postconsumer waste
Recycling aluminum, paper & plastics in the US
Buying recycled paper products
most recycled paper
- is made from preconsumer waste
- labeling such paper as "recycled" is partly a marketing ploy
- giving people who buy such products a false sense that they are helping to reduce solid waste
- has only ~10% postconsumer waste
Recycling aluminum, paper & plastics in the US
Is it feasible to recycle plastics?
Plastics are various types of polymer molecules made by chemically linking monomer molecules (petrochemicals) produced mostly from oil and natural gas
current plastic recycling in US
- ~7% by weight of all plastic wastes
- ~10% of plastic containers
Recycling aluminum, paper & plastics in the US
Is it feasible to recycle plastics?
Plastics are very difficult to isolate from other wastes because they
- occur in so many different and often difficult to identify resins
- sometimes consist of composites or laminated layers of different plastics
- contain stabilizers and other chemicals that must be removed before recycling
Recycling aluminum, paper & plastics in the US
Is it feasible to recycle plastics?
Recovering individual plastic resins does not yield much material
- because only small amounts of any given resin are used per product
the price of oil is so low that the cost of virgin plastic resins is about 40% lower than that of recycled resins
- with the exception of the plastic used in plastic drink bottles
Land disposal of solid waste
Is land disposal of solid waste the answer?
In US, ~54% by weight of MSW is buried in landfills
- compared to
- ~90% in the UK
- ~80% in Canada
- ~15% in Japan
- ~12% in Switzerland
Land disposal of solid waste
Is land disposal of solid waste the answer?
In a sanitary landfill, solid wastes are
- spread out in thin layers
- compacted
- covered daily with a fresh layer of clay or plastic foam
modern state-of-the-art landfills are
- on geologically suitable sites
- lined with clay and plastic
Land disposal of solid waste
Advantages of sanitary landfills for solid waste disposal
no open burning
little odor
low groundwater pollution is sited properly
can be built quickly
low operating sots
can handle large amounts of waste
filled land can be used for other purposes
no shortage of landfill space in most parts of the country
Land disposal of solid waste
Disadvantages of sanitary landfills for solid waste disposal
noise and traffic
dust
air pollution from toxic gases and volatile organic compounds
releases greenhouse gases (methane and CO2)
groundwater contamination
slow decomposition of wastes
encourages waste production
eventually leaks, which can cause groundwater contamination