Linguistics: - Phonetics (phonos)  - sounds.
  - Morphology (morphe) - shape of words: combination of sounds.
  - Syntax (syntag-)  - structure of sentence.
  - Etymology (etymos)  - origin of words/ meanings.
  - Orthography (orthos; graph-) - correct writing.

Words: play different parts in a sentence.
Parts of Speech: ^    - Noun/ Substantive = n. / n .pl.
       - Adjective  = adj.
       - Numeral
       - Pronoun   = pron.
       - Verb  = v./vb. / v.i./v.t.
       - Adverb  = adv.
       - Preposition  = prep.
       - Conjunction
       - Interjection
Details concerning:
NOUN: (n.; sing.pl.) Cases:  - nom. = Subject!
      - gen.  = of...
      - dat.  = for/ to ...
      - acc.  = direct object.
      - abl. / instr. = with/ by...
VERB: (v.; vb.)    v.i.  = intransitive: cannot take a direct object.
    v.t.  = transitive: may have a direct object.
    act.  = active (does)
    pass. = passive (is done)
    perf. = perfective  (has done)
    fut. = future  (will do)
    infin. = infinitive  (to do)
    indic. = indicative (does)
    subj. = subjunctive (should do)
    part. = participle (doing - act.; done - pass.)

Language transmitted = writing:
  - Ideographic - Hieroglyphs: Egypt.
  - Syllabic  - Cuneiforms: Mesopotamia.
  - Alphabetical - Greek (< Phoenician). Our: Roman < W. Gk. alphabet.
  - numerical/ computer language

Literacy: correct speech/ correct writing. \ We do not have to be literate to use language!
 Ayers: two approaches to interpreting language: descriptive vs. prescriptive.
  Descriptivists: Language = natural phenomenon.
  Prescriptivists: Language = matter of human choice/ strategy/ deliberation.
 
 One truth: though it is natural for humans to use language, we are not born with this competence: we are learning it. < Authority. (Mother; peers; ... Dictionaries.)
  Dictionaries:
- translation/ to/from foreign language(s) dictionaries
- general use - lexicon (Webster)
- thesaurus (synonyms/ antonyms)
- etymological
- encyclopedia
- special/ professional terminology
- slang
- author's
- grammatical (backward)
- rhyme; etc.

  A good lexicon for the users of language gives:
- Word & forms (cactus - pl. cacti; cactuses; cactus)
- Grammatical comments (n.)
- Pronunciation  ('kak-tes)
- Etymology (Gk. kaktos)
- Definitions (genus name of plants...) (kid: young goat/ child)
- Spec. information/ label (kidder - Slang)
- Synonyms (dog - canine; puppy)
- Idiomatic use (dog in the manger)

 Definitions (Ayers):  - equivalent to the term. (glasses: = two circles of glass in a frame.)
  - essential characteristic. (something worn on the nose.)
  - simple and clear, in more familiar terms. (oculistic devise.)
  - avoid negative definitions. (not contact lenses.)
  -- Ex.Ay.-p.34-IV.
 

Borrowed from Gk./Lat.:  PREFIXES / BASE STEMS.  -- Combinations.
 
 Sometimes, there are different versions of the same prefix or base - due to the laws of phonetics and morphology of Lat./Gk.
Latin  NOUN STEM < Genitive:  homo sapiens/ homin-ids;  human-ity.
  VERB: 3 STEMS.   a-spir-e; a-spirat-ion.

Exx: Ay.13-14: I; II. 24-25: IV-VIII.
  Wb. p.1; 5-10.

Ayers-I: II

 
     PREFIX:

AD-  to
CO- CON- COM- with
DE-  down, from
EX  out of
IN- in, into (or not)
PER- through
RE- again
TRANS- across
 
 

        BASE:

ALIEN- of another
ART-  skill
FIN-  end
FIRM-  strong
FORT-  brave, strong
GRAND- big
GRAV-  heavy
LINE-      line (LIGN- log)
NIHIL, NUL-  nothing
PART-  part
SPIR-  breath
VERB-  word
VEST-  clothing
PARTS OF SPEECH:  DICTIONARY ABBREVIATIONS:
- Noun (substantive)  = n. / n.pl. = plural
- Adjective   = adj.
- Numeral
- Pronoun    = pron.
- Verb    = v., vb. (v.i.; v.t.)
- Adverb   = adv.
- Preposition  = prep.
- Conjunction
- Interjection

     NOUN CASES:
   - nominative = nom. = Subject!
   - genitive  = gen. = of...
   - dative   = dat. = for/ to ...
   - accusative  = acc. = direct object.
   - ablative   = abl.  = with/ by...
     (instrumental = instr.)

     VERB: (v.; vb.)
  v.i.  = intransitive: cannot take a direct object.
  v.t.  = transitive: may have a direct object.
  act.  = active (does)
  pass. = passive (is done)
  perf. = perfective (has done)
  fut.  = future  (will do)
  infin. = infinitive  (to do)
  indic. = indicative (does)
  subj. = subjunctive (should do)
  part. = participle (doing - act.; done - pass.)
Ay-I: I-2
    Linguistics:
- Phonetics (phonos)  - sounds.
- Morphology (morphe) - shape of words: combination of sounds.
- Syntax (syn-tag-)  - structure of sentence.
- Etymology (etymos - true) - origin of words/ meanings.
- Orthography (orthos; graph-) - correct writing.
 

Parts of Speech:  - Noun/ Substantive = n. / n .pl.
     - Adjective  = adj.
     - Numeral
     - Pronoun   = pron.
     - Verb   = v./vb. / v.i./v.t.
     - Adverb   = adv.
     - Preposition  = prep.
     - Conjunction
     - Interjection

NOUN (n.; sing.pl.) Cases: - nom.  = Subject!
  - gen.  = of...
  - dat.  = for/ to ...
  - acc.  = direct object.
  - abl. / instr. = with/ by...

VERB (v.; vb.)
 
v.i.  = intransitive: cannot take a direct object.
v.t.  = transitive: may take a direct object (take what?)
act.  = active  (does)
pass. = passive  (is done)
perf. = perfective  (has done)
fut. = future   (will do)
infin. = infinitive  (to do)
indic. = indicative (does)
subj. = subjunctive  (should do)
part. = participle (doing - act.; done - pass.)

 WRITING:

Ideographic - Hieroglyphs: Egypt.
Syllabic - Cuneiforms: Mesopotamia.
Alphabetical - Greek (< Phoenician). Our: Roman < W. Gk. alphabet.
+ Numerical/ computer language.

  Dictionaries:

- translation/ to/from foreign language(s) dictionaries
- general use - lexicon (Webster)
- thesaurus (synonyms/ antonyms)
- etymological
- encyclopedia
- special/ professional terminology
- slang
- author's
- grammatical (backward)
- rhyme; etc.

  A good lexicon for the users of language gives:

- Word & forms (cactus - pl. cacti; cactuses; cactus)
- Grammatical comments (n.)
- Pronunciation  ('kak-tes)
- Etymology (Gk. kaktos)
- Definitions (genus name of plants...) (kid: young goat/ child)
- Spec. information/ label (kidder - Slang)
- Synonyms (dog - canine; puppy)
- Idiomatic use (dog in the manger)

 DEFINITIONS:

- equivalent to the term. (glasses: = two circles of glass in a frame.)
- essential characteristic. (= something worn on the nose.)
- simple and clear, in more familiar terms. (= oculistic devise.)
- avoid negative definitions. (= not contact lenses.)