The Impact of Parental Storybook Reading and Storytelling on the Emergent Literacy Skills of Diverse Young Children:  A Brief Examination of Recent Convergent Evidence

Introduction

Parents provide young children with their first exposure to literacy, whether it is through looking at picture books or singing a lullaby.  The fields of emergent and family literacy attempt to understand these early literacy-based interactions that occur between parents and children, especially focusing attention on the impact these contacts may have on children’s later educational and social performance.  Unfortunately, past research, particularly in the area of family literacy, has looked at family interactions from a deficit model, meaning that programs have focused on teaching parents new ways of working on literacy skills rather than embracing current home literacy practices as a basis for interventions.  Recent work has begun to slowly move away from this perspective and has stated to investigate the unique ways that parents interact with children in the learning process.  Qualitative studies describing cultural practices of diverse families have started to appear in the literature, as has quantitative research examining the connection of activities such as storybook reading and storytelling, to the academic growth of young children. 

            This paper will examine a selection of the recent studies focusing on parental use of storybook reading and storytelling with young children for convergent evidence regarding their impact on early literacy development.  It will provide a brief overview of the fields of emergent and family literacy, followed by an investigation of the impact of storybook reading and storytelling on communication, cultural awareness, and motivation.  The paper will conclude with a discussion of the findings and links to practice and future research. 

Emergent Literacy

The study of early literacy skills development has roots in both education and developmental psychology.  “Emergent literacy is concerned with the earliest phases of literacy development, the period between birth and the time when children read and write conventionally” (Sulzby & Teale, 1991 p. 728). It supports the concept that children are continuously learning how to use print and oral language from a series of interactions with their environment.  Emergent literacy theory is in contrast to the “reading readiness” model that believes “young children need to be taught a series of prerequisite skills prior to reading, and that writing should be delayed until the children were reading” (Yaden, Rowe, & MacGillivary, 2000 p. 425).  In the early 1990’s, Mason and Sinha examined many of the early emergent literacy studies completed by researchers like Clay and Heath and discussed perspectives that seemed to be present in each work.  These perspectives included the idea that literacy begins prior to formal instruction and includes more than just decoding as well as the idea that a child’s point of view and social setting have to be acknowledged (Mason & Sinah, 1993).  Additionally, the researchers attempted to ground the idea of emergent literacy in a theoretical perspective based on Vygotsky’s theories, since there was a disagreement in the field about the theoretical basis of emergent literacy. 

In 2000, Yaden et al. wrote a chapter for the Handbook of Reading Research, Vol.III that discussed emergent literacy theories in practice during storybook reading, play, and writing.  The article also addressed the impact of family effects on a child’s reading performance, citing 1992 and 1995 studies from Bus and van Ijzendoorn that asserted attachment between a mother and child “predicted the frequency of storybook reading in the home” (Yaden et al., 2000, p.430).  In addition, the chapter discussed other literature involving the examination of emergent literacy in the home or family setting.  The topics addressed in the chapter appeared to have close ties with another branch of literacy research described in another Handbook chapter written by Purcell-Gates.  Her chapter described a body of research concerned solely with the impact of family practices on the development of young children’s early literacy skills.  The name of the field was family literacy. 

Family Literacy

    Family literacy is the study of how home and family-based practices affect the development of children’s literacy skills.  Like emergent literacy, the theory of family literacy is not well defined.  Early research in family literacy has sought to uncover relationships between home practices and school success, particularly in relation to families with low socio-economic status.  Researchers have looked at factors such as “parents’ educational level, the uses of print in the home, the number of books in the home, and the frequency of parent-child storybook reading events” (Purcell-Gates, 2000, p. 854) and their correlation to children’s performance in school.  Although results continue to be mixed, studies have shown that family literacy practices like shared storybook reading appear to positively influence the language skills of children.  This influence then seems to serve as a precursor to beginning reading skills.

    Family literacy can be addressed in several ways, including projects that train adults and programs that investigate traditional home practices.  The Harvard Family Research Project (2003) describes several perspectives regarding family literacy.  One perspective, the deficit model, has received criticism but continues to be the basis of most policy-promoted programs.  This model addresses the idea that families, particularly those with low incomes, do not understand the skills needed to promote child learning, therefore programs must educate parents in appropriate ways to aid in their child’s education.  Unfortunately this model does not acknowledge the cultural practices or ways that literacy may already be used in the home as assets to building skills (Caspe, 2003). Purcell-Gates discusses the deficit model in relation to family literacy, noting that there can be many ways of incorporating literacy and print in the lives of children.  She specifically references the work of Taylor and Auerbach who have opposed the standard three types of family literacy programs (Purcell-Gates, 2000).  These types are based on the work of Nickse (1993) and include programs that focus instruction on adults and children, programs that provide instruction only to adults, and programs that provide instruction only the children, with the latter two types intending the other party will indirectly benefit (Purcell-Gates, 2000).  In their 2000 review for the Handbook of Early Childhood Intervention, Brooks-Gunn, Belin, & Fuligni also discuss the three types of programs as well as additional programs that do not provide a specific “adult education component” but “aim to improve children’s literacy and academic achievements by enhancing parent-child literacy interactions and family literacy environments” (Brooks-Gunn et.al., 2000, p. 557).  

    Mothers have been the primary caretaker involved in most traditional family literacy programs; however limited information is available regarding the role of fathers and siblings (Caspe, 2003).   In addition, some critics have examined the role of intergenerational programs and family literacy programs that are geared toward women.  “Using feminist theories, they argue that family literacy programs should instead empower mothers to question the role of authority, recognize the importance of personal experience as a source of knowledge, and explore the perspectives of different races, class, and culture”(Caspe, 2003, p. 3).  Feminist theory suggests that researchers move away from the deficit model and toward understanding the strengths in the literacy activities of all families.

    One activity that is prevalent in most all cultures is storytelling.  Whether stories are told orally or through picture books, parents and family members use them to convey a wealth of knowledge about the community to its youngest members.  Both storytelling and storybook reading are prevalent in various forms in early childhood education and their benefits to young children have been discussed throughout the current research literature.  Storybook reading has been linked to increases in children’s vocabulary, motivation, and cultural awareness and Geringer (2003) noted that storytelling is related to many of the same outcomes.  An analysis of a selection of international research related to storybook reading and storytelling highlights findings associated with these three areas. 

Communication Skills

            Much of the research on the influence of storybook reading and storytelling on children’s early literacy skills has been completed in the United States, however in the past few years international research on the subject has come to light.  A review of the convergent evidence, or findings that come together to support a theory, shows that the influence on parental involvement in storybook reading and storytelling consistently produces increases in children’s communication skills across cultures.  It also shows that both techniques can be effective with improving the communication skills of children who are deaf or nonverbal. 

    Aram & Levin in Israel (2002) and Senechal & LeFevre (2002) in Canada both completed research that supported the idea that children who were exposed to storybooks experienced an increase in receptive language skills as measured by adaptations of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (PPVT-R) and other assessments.   Aram, Most, & Mayafit (2006) and Deckner, Adamson, & Bakeman (2006) also demonstrated gains in children’s receptive language as measured by the PPVT-R.  Aram et. al.’s study in Israel examined the contributions of storybook telling between mothers and kindergarteners with hearing loss to determine if it was an effective home literacy practice.  This study added a storytelling element by asking the parents to tell a story to their children using a picture book with no words.  Results on the PPVT-R found that the children’s phonological awareness and receptive language skills were increased by participation in storybook reading/telling with their mothers.  In addition, a 2006 study by Deckner et. al., showed gains on the PPVT-R from engaging in storybook reading with mothers.  Improvements in receptive and expressive language skills on the PPVT-R at both 30 and 42 months of age were also noted.  Finally, Senechal (2006) and Collins (2006) reported picture book storytelling led to increased vocabulary skills in the young students they were assessing. 

    Storybook reading and storytelling appear to be beneficial for nonverbal students who have or may be at-risk for certain conditions that make many of the practices described in the articles such as reading and discussing questions aloud difficult to achieve.  Two recent articles from 2006 approach this topic in regard to students with Rett Syndrome and working with pre-verbal toddlers.  Skotko, Koppenhaver, and Erickson videotaped 195 storybook reading episodes between four girls with Rett’s and their mothers.  They found that the girls learned to communicate answers to questions about the stories by using adaptive switch devices.  The researchers reported that the reading episodes made available a way for the girls to engage in activities of joint attention and interactive communication.  Consequently, the girls’ progress with using the adaptive switches demonstrated that communication could lead to more positive assumptions about the ability level of the young girls.  In addition to Skotko et. al.’s work, Fletcher and Sabo (2006) found that storybook reading interactions between parents, infants, and toddlers allowed the opportunity for non-verbal children to display their interest and attention in a story by communicating with the reader by pointing to photographs or pictures.  This article highlighted the point that positive storybook reading or storytelling interactions can also help build a positive view of how students with disabilities are perceived in the classroom.  Information collected from working with these studies provides valuable data about new possibilities for working with students who have severe communication difficulties. 

Cultural Awareness

            A second theme noted in the early childhood research on the impact of storybook reading and storytelling on emergent literacy skills is the idea that the activities serve as mechanisms for teaching and sharing cultural norms and traditions with young children.  Nurss (2000) was one of the initial researchers to encourage families to use storytelling to share cultural information.  Working with families in the United States and South Africa, Nurss used folk tales as a means to help families from diverse backgrounds discover similarities in their views of the world and promote intergenerational transmission of cultural traditions.  Her project encouraged families to use bilingual sharing of family stories as a means for linking the importance of literacy and cultural awareness in home and school settings.

    In 2004, Harkins and Ray studied the storytelling habits of mothers in East India and in the United States.  They reported that storytelling is an important aspect of parent child bonding that provides a way for intergenerational passage of cultural roles and values.  This study allowed mothers to use a combination of a pictures and storytelling by using an illustrated book with no words as the conversation starter.  In general, stories from the American mothers tended to have happy endings and were focused on the attainment of a goal and independence, rather than on feelings about the story.  Mothers from East India appeared to concentrate on the emotional aspects of the story including cultural values and community.  Mothers from both cultures seemed to construct their story based on the cultural values and norms of the community in which they lived. 

            Research studying the storybook interactions between Puerto Rican and African American mothers also described differing cultural approaches to storytelling.  Hammer, Nimmo, Cohen, Draheim, and Johnson (2005), found that Puerto Rican mother child dyads used a more labels and comments when discussing the story with their children than did African-American mothers who often waited for their children to instigate the interactions.  The researchers determined that the various styles of storybook reading appeared to work best for different children depending on the context of their culture and community. This was an important finding for cultures where reading is seen as a social activity more so than an educational preparation one.  Hammer et. al. stressed the importance of respecting these variations in storybook interactions and promoted the idea that parents should be offered suggestions to supplement their styles but should not be encouraged to replace the interaction methods that are best suited for their child’s culture and community. 

            The idea of respecting cultural differences and allowing for parental interactions to serve as teaching models about cultural norms and expectations was also echoed by a team of British researchers conducting a longitudinal study with Bengali families living in East London.  Gregory, Arju, Jessel, Kenner, and Ruby (2007) described the cultural interactions that took place during storybook reading between a grandmother and her grandchildren.  They noted from observations and interviews that literacy practices differed in all homes and in this family the grandmother used her knowledge of stories from her childhood in Bangladesh to enhance her reading of current picture books.  Gregory et. al., also stressed that children use cultural information to interpret the stories that they hear.  The work of each of these researchers shows that awareness of cultural interactions during storytelling and storybook reading provides an optimum time for parents or other family members to teach children cultural norms and understanding. 

Motivation

            The last theme noted in the studies examining family storybook reading and storytelling is the importance of providing interactions that encourage motivation and engagement for reading.  This may be done by helping children recognize their own culture in stories as discussed above and/or by providing pleasurable experiences for children to link to literacy interactions between themselves and their parents or other family members.  Baker, Mackler, Sonnenschein, and Serpell addressed the importance of motivation and engagement in reading with their 2001 study looking at storybook reading between parents and children in Baltimore, Maryland.  They discussed the importance of parental literacy role models for continued engagement in reading.  Baker et.al., found that parental affect during storybook reading sessions in first grade was a significant predictor of  student engagement with reading in the third grade.  Specifically, the more positive the parent-child interactions in first grade, the more engaged children were with reading when they reached the third grade level. 
    Schonnenschein and Munsterman (2002) expanded on this theory by studying the impact of home-reading interactions during the summer prior to children attending kindergarten.  Again it was noted that the affective quality of the interactions was a significant predictor for children’s reading motivation in school.  They reported that positive experiences with storybooks in kindergarten were positively linked to reading motivation of the students in first grade.  In addition, Kaderavek and Pakulski (2007) demonstrated that while engagement in story book reading can be difficult to maintain for some young children with hearing impairments, using manipulative books can increase motivation and engagement in the storybook task. 
    Morgan (2005) showed that for children in low income neighborhoods in London, positive interactions during storybook reading with family members led to increased engagement in reading and noted that child behavior had a strong impact on parental reading style.  Laible and Song (2006) continued research on affect and motivation by showing that parent-child dyads from the United States were able to use storytelling from a wordless picture book to teach children about emotions. They reported that the more parents talked about both positive and negative emotions during storytelling, the less likely parents were to describe their children as aggressive.  This has important ties to Morgan’s research and implies that storytelling and storybook reading can indirectly increase children’s motivation for reading by improving interactions between parents and young children.  Although framed in unique contexts, each of these studies clearly provides evidence that engagement and motivation for reading are important factors in the development of early literacy skills. 

    The significant impact that parent and child involvement in storytelling and storybook reading activities can have on molding early literacy skills is undeniable.  Research discussed in this paper has provided evidence that links parental involvement to increases in children’s communication skills, their knowledge of cultural awareness, and their motivation and engagement with reading.  While the evidence appears to be convergent, there are some aspects to each of the studies that may have influenced this result and should be discussed. 
Concerns
    First, there is some debate about the choice of measures used by each of the researchers and whether or not the assessments were actually measuring the construct described.  For example, in order to rate frequency of exposure to storybooks, several of the authors used a task that asks parents and/or children to identify the names of storybooks they recognize from a list of titles.  For parents with limited memory or recognition skills, this task may not be an accurate measure of books that have been read.  In addition, it does not allow for other home literacy activities like storytelling that have been shown to have similar effects on children’s performance in school.  Senechal and LeFevre (2002) even mention these issues in the discussion of their research.  Another example of measurement concerns is that the majority of the researchers used the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-R to gather their data on receptive and expressive language skills and vocabulary building.  This test, like many standardized measures may not be statistically normed for the populations it is being used with and therefore may underestimate the skills of the children assessed. 
    In addition to potential problems with assessment tools used in the articles, other possible issues affecting study results were noted.  For instance, the sample sizes of the groups varied widely from large longitudinal group data to studies that examined sets of three or four students.  The groups also had various numbers of participants from different socio-economic and cultural backgrounds.  Also, some of the researchers based their results on only one home observation, which could have been unrepresentative of a typical day in the home because of a parent’s nervousness, problems with reading unfamiliar texts, or difficulties with the children’s behavior.   Each of these issues makes generalization of findings to the larger population difficult, but still allows for interesting data that must be described within its context. 
Implications for Practice
    Although there may have been some concerns with the methods used in the research studies, the evidence still showed a strong convergence around the three themes of improvements in communication skills, increases in cultural awareness, and the importance of reading motivation and engagement in relation to building literacy skills in young children.  What do these themes mean for practice in schools and programs working to develop family literacy programs for families of young children?  The research on cultural awareness shows that schools and programs need to be open to learning about home literacy practices and how they can be beneficial to the learning of young children.  Storytelling in particular, appears to have great potential for helping families with dual-language backgrounds engage in literacy activities with their children. 
    Based on the findings that parental engagement and affect during storybook reading or story telling is significantly related to children’s overall perception of reading, educators need to find avenues to incorporate family members regardless of what may be seen as potential barriers to learning.  This international collection of research highlights that concerns about bilingual home education and the impact of low socio-economic status on parent teaching styles are prevalent in many countries and continue to be seen from a deficit model.  Helping families to feel invited and involved with school and community literacy programs is one way to begin to challenge this deficit perspective and to move toward the view that all families and students are able to positively contribute to education.  For children with disabilities like Rett’s Syndrome described in Skotko, Koppenhaver, and Erickson’s article, this may require educators and parents to look “out of the box” to find ways to help all children have access to age level reading material.  From the research in this paper, it is evident that this access is critical to the development of not only of communication skills, but also to the development of engagement skills, and to an understanding of cultural norms and traditions. 
Further research is needed internationally to continue to investigate the benefits to

using family storytelling and storybook reading as a basis for home literacy instruction.  Studies looking at wider populations of students with learning differences or low incidence disabilities could provide significant insight into improving literacy instruction for children who have difficulties with traditional modes of verbal communication.  Narrative and case studies like Gregory’s work with a Bengali family in London (2007) can provide descriptions of family practices with less bias than standardized measures and can help researchers and educators better understand the impact of language and cultural differences on family literacy activities, forming new norms for what is considered appropriate, effective practice.  Each of these possible projects moves the fields of family and emergent literacy a little bit closer to including and respecting the knowledge that diverse children and their families bring to literacy education worldwide.

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