Exam: EDRS 810, fall, 2006

Exams are due by 4:30 on 12/5/06

1.  What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative research? Include mention of possible differences in purpose, method, data sources, data analysis

Quantitative research examines a research question in a descriptive and methodical manner.  It has a specific purpose that looks at the effectiveness of an intervention with statistically measurable data. A review of previously conducted literature plays a major role in the development and justification of the study.  Data is collected using predetermined instruments to look at information from a large population of individuals who have been randomly assigned to a treatment or comparison group and is analyzed by statistically describing trends, comparisons, or relationships among variables.  Results are reported in a structured and objective report that should be unbiased.  Qualitative research also seeks to provide information about a research question, however the question is exploratory in nature and designed to help understand a certain phenomena.  Reviewing the literature plays a minor role in the development of the research question.  The purpose of a qualitative research study is general, broad, and based on the experiences of the participants.  Data is generally collected by a small number of participants and is obtained using methods such as interviews and reviewing artifacts.  It is then examined for themes and descriptions that are then applied to a wider view.  Qualitative data is flexible in its reporting style and data analysis may emerge as the data is examined.  Unlike quantitative research reports, qualitative reports are written in a biased manner, highlighting the beliefs of the researcher. 

2.       Write the essential elements required in a Method Section for an intervention research study.

When writing a method section for an intervention research study, there is specific information that must be included.  First, in the Design portion of the methods section, the writer explains how and where participants were invited to join the study.  Brief information about the treatment groups and how participants were chosen for the groups is also included.  In the Sample section the writer explains in detail who participated in the research including demographic information such as the number of individuals in each group, ages, cultural or ethnic background, socio-economic status, and gender. The Materials section describes the material used to conduct the research including the indicators that will be used to monitor differences between the experimental and comparison groups.  Data Sources, an in-depth description of measures used in the study, are incorporated next. This section also discusses statistically analyses that will be completed.  The Procedure section outlines the way the research was carried out, including how permission, consent, and assent were obtained.  Reliability or Fidelity of Treatment describes how researches can ensure that measures and activities are examining what they are supposed to examine.  Finally, Scoring Procedures discusses how measures will be scored. 

3.   Examine the following quantitative research question:  “Do fifth grade students who participate in a supplemental daily calendar math program learn more math content as demonstrated on the Virginia SOLs than those who do not receive this supplementary math program?”

    What is the independent variable?  The independent variable is participation in a daily calendar math program.

    What is the dependent variable?  The dependent variable is student performance on the fifth grade Virginia SOL         tests.
4.       List and describe each step in he Human Subjects review process at GMU (include all items from the GMU protocol in your response).

      The HSRB review process at GMU is designed to ensure the safety and well-being of anyone who participates in a research study sanctioned by GMU.  Before applying to the HSRB, all GMU students must complete CITI on-line training about using humans in research.  Once this is done, the student must complete the HSRB application for review.  This review includes the name, phone number, and address for the principal and co-investigators.  An abstract that describes the purpose of study and the sample is submitted that includes information such as criteria for inclusion or exclusion factors, special populations, and the researcher’s relationship to the participants.   Vulnerable populations, identifiable data, and research design are checked for consideration.  The answers to 10 protocol questions are written and submitted.  The questions investigate information such as compensation, consent, assent, benefits, confidentiality, procedures, and risks.  Audio/video taping and misinforming participates for the project should also be discussed.  Copies of Informed Consent/Assent forms are attached to the protocol along with copies and a description of each instrument that will be used. Persons working with existing data complete an additional page regarding the data set or samples. Once completed, the forms are submitted to the HSRB for approval.

5.      Consider the scores for the individuals below. For this set of scores, compute deviation scores, squared deviation scores, variance, standard deviation, and z scores. (You may use SPSS and Copy and paste the output here). Show all work.

a.       Name                Score

b.       Kola                11

c.       Fifi                12

d.       Vina                13

e.       Tyler                14

f.        Peanut                15

Descriptive Statistics

            Statistics

score  

a  Multiple modes exist. The smallest value is shown

         score

 Statistics

score  

Name        score         z-score

Kola           11.00        -1.26491

Fifi              12.00         -.63246

Vina           13.00          .00000

Tyler          14.00          .63246

Peanut     15.00         1.26491

Additional calculations for the deviation and squared deviation scores is attached on a separate sheet.

6.       Describe the report writing process in both qualitative and quantitative research. What features do they have in common, and how might they differ? Discuss with reference to examples of qualitative and quantitative research.

Quantitative and qualitative report writing have both commonalities and differences in the way that they present research information.  Both reports contain a title page, abstract, reference list, and appendices.  Both types of reports also begin with a statement of the research problem and the purpose of the research questions, as well as a description of the limitations of the study.  Quantitative reports will also list hypotheses about what will happen in the research, provide a section that explains the theoretical background of the study, and give definitions of terms used.  Unlike qualitative reports, they also have a substantial review of previous literature.  Both types of reports feature a methods section, however the items in the section may be different for the two study types.  Quantitative reports discuss the study design, procedures and instruments used, reliability and validity of the measures, and the data analysis methods used.  The methods section of a qualitative report discusses the methodology and design used in the study.  It explains the site of the research and the way that participants were chosen for the sample.  Qualitative reports also discuss the data analysis methods and how findings will be validated.  The methods section of both reports discusses possible ethical issues.  Results are presented in both types, as is a discussion section that talks about the study, its limitations, and gives questions for future research. 

7.       Describe procedures for optimal item construction in survey research, and procedures for obtaining a high response rate.
Developing surveys is a complex process.  Good survey designs use different forms of questions, such as personal, attitudinal, and behavioral questions, open or close ended questions, and sensitive questions, that should be placed at a later point in the survey for the most accurate results.  Researchers may also use semi-closed ended questions, which ask a close-ended question but give space for the responder to add additional responses.  When writing questions it is important to use good construction techniques.  Questions should be clear using familiar words for the respondent instead of technical terms.  Each question should only use as many words as necessary and should only ask one question.  Writers should avoid using negative wordings and jargon, and should avoid having answer choices that overlap or are unbalanced.  Responses should match what the question is asking and if all participants cannot answer a question, branching questions should be used.  In order to secure a high response rate to surveys, researchers should send out the questionnaire, follow it later with a second questionnaire to non-responders, and then send a final notice to any remaining non-responders.  Having questions that are meaningful to the participants, using a short survey, and providing incentives can also help with returns.

8.       Briefly describe how to use the GMU online survey software.

GMU provides its students with access to the Survey on-line survey tool.  Survey allows students to create surveys and collect data that can be imported to other computer-based statistical packages.  In order to use Survey, students are provided with a user id and a password to enter the system.  Once in the program, students can create and name a new survey.  GMU HSRB information can be copied into the form so that participants can give consent to view the survey.  Survey items are designed with the options of open or closed responses.  Once the survey is completed, students can open the survey for data collection for a specific or unlimited time.  The link to the survey is then sent to participants.  The program allows for notification each time a survey is completed and you can examine data results to data during the collection process.  When the survey is closed for collection, data is downloaded and can be imported for analysis to a statistical program such as SPSS.

9.       List software available to assist with data analyses for both quantitative and qualitative research. Indicate your comfort level with the software.

There are several different commercial data analysis programs for quantitative and qualitative research that are commonly used by researchers.  For analysis of quantitative data the following programs are commonly used: 

·   Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS):  I am most comfortable with this program but not yet familiar with the point and click version.  I have done a complex data analysis with this program in the past but am fairly rusty still.

·    SAS:  I used this many years ago when I worked with the USDA, but I would be a beginner now.

·    Minitabl3:  No knowledge of this program.

·     StatView:  No knowledge of this program.

·     SYSTAT:  No Knowledge of this program.

For analysis of qualitative data these are the most commonly used programs:

·         QSR Nvivo:  Very basis knowledge of this program based on our in-class experiences.

·         Ethnograph Version 5.0:  No knowledge of this program.

·         Atlas.ti:  No knowledge of this program.

·         HyperResearch:  No knowledge of this program.

                        ·         WinMAX:   No knowledge of this program.

10.    Discuss the process of data analysis in qualitative research, including exploring the data, developing themes from the data, coding data, and connecting themes. Describe also the role of the constant comparative method.    

Data analysis in qualitative research involves a number of steps.  First, data must be complied in an organized manner, which can include using file cards, computer tables, and/or organization by type (i.e. interviews, observations).  All data should be duplicated.  After organizing the material, the researcher transcribes any notes or recordings.  Notes can be taken on the data during this process.  Once the data is transcribed, the researcher looks at the data to develop a general sense of what is going on.  This can include restorying in narrative data collection where information from interviews is rewritten in a chronological order.  Data is then coded, or described using themes.  Themes develop from the information in the data.  They may begin broad and can be collapsed as text and artifacts are coded such as in the constant comparative method of grounded theory research.  Constant comparative method allows the researcher to review data by generating and connecting categories that are derived by comparing incidents in the data to other incidents, incidents to categories, and categories to other categories.  This provides evidence for the research by “grounding” it in the information and eliminating redundancy.  Coded information can be analyzed by hand or entered into a program such as Nvivo to look for themes.  Themes may be layered if interconnectedness is found.  Findings from the data are then reported in a manner that expresses the researchers personal views and compares the findings to other data in the literature. 

*Do not go over 200 words for any answer, although you may use parsimony in writing. Be sure your examples demonstrate your understanding of the relevant concepts.

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