Understanding the Role of Home, School, and Community Involvement in the Literacy Education of Primary School Children in Ghana:  A Study of Teacher Perspectives

Introduction

As the world continues to become smaller due to computer technology and travel advances it has become increasingly important for the United States to take an interest in the education and literacy policies of other countries. Studying international literacy policies can help the United States understand the need for reforms to its own educational system while also highlighting ways that the country can participate in reducing worldwide illiteracy.   Eradicating illiteracy across the globe is considered to be an effective strategy to decrease the number of people living in poverty by increasing opportunities for career choices thereby hopefully increasing standards of living and international trade that can positively impact the world economy. 

Ghana, Africa is one example of a developing country whose government has identified education reform as a priority.  The Ghanaian government has set a goal of ensuring primary education for all children by the year 2015 (United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), 2007).  This seems a daunting task for a county that in 2000 had only 10 percent of its students in primary level six reading at grade level (Lipson & Wixson, 2004).  Examining the policies associated with education by observing and interviewing those who carry them out in practice is one way that the United States and other nations facing problems in their own systems can form a better understanding of the challenges involved in providing education for children with a wide-range of needs.

            One part of educational reform that has been found to be effective in promoting literacy practices is the involvement of families and communities.  Family and community perceptions of the importance of education and literacy can have a significant impact on the participation of children in schooling programs and on funding that is provided to improve them.  Primary school teachers are in a unique position to provide insight on this aspect of policy because not only do they have contact with children and their families, but they are also members of the community who have successfully navigated the education system and believe in its worth.  In Ghana, this is of particular importance because of the 79 percent of students who attend primary school only 39 percent continue with secondary studies (Owusu-Ansah, 2007).  A percentage decrease of this magnitude insinuates that there are family or community activities that are considered to be more important than schooling for children.  Without addressing these implications, significant educational reform, even at the primary level, will be difficult to sustain.  This proposal will attempt to uncover some of the Ghanaian family and community perceptions on education, namely literacy instruction, by interviewing teachers currently working in the country’s primary schools regarding their experiences as both students, if applicable, and teachers. 

Education in Ghana

Brief history

            Ghana is one of a number of sub-Saharan countries in Africa who have begun looking at reforms to its educational policy.  Ghana has a long history of providing educational programs to children.  Evidence of schooling programs dates back as early as 1529, and documentation of programs for young children was noted from 1745 with the opening of the Elmina Castle School (Morrison, 2000; 2001).  Most of the early educational programs were run by missionaries and according to McWilliam in 1959, were formed for the purpose of spreading the Christian religion (Morrision, 2000; 2001).   Since Ghana was a British colony, the English government began opening schools independent of the mission programs in the mid-1800’s.  Schools continued to be run by the English government, focusing on primary education for younger students until 1957 when Ghana gained it’s independence from English rule (Morrison, 2000; Owusu-Ansah, 2007).  In 1961, the Republic of Ghana passed the Education Act of 1961 which made schools the responsibility of the Ministry of Education, who 4 years later set up the Ghana Education Service (Morrison, 2000; 2001).   In 1992, an article was added to the Constitution of Ghana that required the government to provide a free basic education to all citizens (UNICEF, 2007).  That same year the government developed a program, The Child Cannot Wait, to address the issue of child labor in the country and its effects on schooling (Stephens, 1998). 

            In 2004, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization’s (UNESCO) Institute for Lifelong Learning established the Education Quality for All (EQUALL) program in Ghana.  This program was funded by USAID with the purpose of increasing literacy and educational access for Ghanaian children by the year 2009 (UNESCO, 2008).  The main purposes of this initiative include increasing basic access to education for all citizens, particularly girls and increasing reading instructional practice.  EQUALL is connected with the Reading Improvement Program that was formed in 2004 to address low levels of learning in Ghana and with the Complementary Education Program (CEP) which since 1985 has worked to provide schooling for students who were unable to attend a traditional school because of poverty or work commitments (UNESCO, 2008).  In February of 2008, First Lady Laura Bush visited Ghana and gave her support to the EQUALL program, applauding its mission to increase literacy from the 25 percent of individuals who are able to read at grade level after completing six years of primary school (EDC, 2008).  After 2009, the program is intended to transfer the main responsibilities over to the government, including the goal of education for all students in their native languages as well as English.

At the same time as UNESCO started the EQUALL program, the Ghanaian government completed a White Paper on Education reform.  This paper outlined the major objectives that were to be enacted by 2007.  They included adding two years of kindergarten to the primary school structure and allowing for 3 years of free and mandatory junior high school (UNICEF, 2007). 

            Currently, other worldwide organizations are also involved in improving literacy and education in Ghana.  The International Reading Association (IRA) has partnered with UNESCO to provide training for teachers in assessment and instructional techniques in literacy for primary teachers.  The IRA completed a commissioned report in 2004 for USAID regarding the evaluation of teacher training programs in Ghana, and in 2007 held its 5^th Annual Pan-African Reading for All conference at the University of Ghana in Accra (Orsini, 2007; IRA, 2008).  The IRA has also partnered with the Virginia Reading association to send volunteer educators to provide training and bring reading supplies to practicing teachers in Winneba, Ghana (Reading Today, 2004).  In addition to IRA, religious organizations, such as the Bah’a`i’ faith, have worked to bring literacy education to Ghana’s students.  The Bah’a`i’ faith has specifically established its “Enlightening the Hearts” program that is currently in practice to provide native language instruction in Twi to all students between the ages of 9 and 15 (Bah’a`i’ World News Service, 2007). 

Education programs

            Since 1992 free basic education for all citizens has been the goal of the Ghana Ministry of Education.  According to the internet homepage for the Ministry, there are 12,130 primary schools in Ghana; however access to schooling continues to be an issue for many students because of financial difficulties and shortages of facilities (Homepage Ghana, 1994-2008).   Secondary schools and vocational and technical training are available, however less than 39% of the students who attended primary schools continue on to these levels (Owusu-Ansah, 2007).  In April of 2007, the Ministry of Education began the reform program that was discussed in the 2004 White Paper.  As of the writing of this paper though, controversy over the funding and participation of students in the programs continues (Homepage Ghana, 29 September 2007). 

            Reading and math are the two main subjects that are studied by students at the primary level.  Students who continue on to the secondary levels may focus on elective subjects like chemistry or literary, depending on their focus of study.  All subjects are taught in English at this time in government supported schools, unless initiated by another religious or nonprofit organization.  After completion of the senior secondary program, students sit for exams that determine their eligibility to attend a university (Homepage Ghana, 1994-2008). 

            Many problems plague the Ghanaian educational system making it difficult for some students to access.  Lack of classrooms, books, instructional materials, and trained educators are just a few of the consistent problems that are seen across the country (Mfum-Mensah, 2002; Lipson & Wixson, 2004). A recent article addressing opportunity gaps in 46 countries reported that in “New Zealand and Ghana less than 40% of students are taught by qualified teachers” (Akiba, LeTendre, & Scribner, 2007).

Although the goal of the Ministry of Education is to provide free education, parents are still required at this time to share the cost of schooling, including buying books and even bringing the chairs that the students use in the classroom (Sefa Dea, 2004; UNICEF, 2007).  Because of the financial obligation, many families have chosen not to send their children to school, instead training them in the family business, farming, or in the case of girls, in childcare techniques (Stephens, 1998; UNICEF, 2007).  Some programs such as the Shepherd School program have attempted to bring education to rural communities by focusing on using non-formal methods of basic education that teach literacy, numeracy, hygiene, and trade skills (Mfum-Mensah, 2002).  Success of both the governmental and non-traditional schools seems to be impacted by the opinions students’ families and communities have about the need for literacy and also appear to be regional in nature.

Community and family impact

    In order to better understand community perspectives toward education, researchers have interviewed community

members regarding their participating in schools. Based on the research, there is no clear –cut response as to how

communities view the importance of schools.  In some areas, community members are involved with all aspects of the

school and education, from building the facilities to deciding what curriculum will be taught (Chapman, Barcikowski,

Sowah, Gyamera, & Woode, 2002; Mfum-Mensah, 2004).  Some communities have active Parent-Teacher Associations

that work together to plan the school calendar and monitor enrollment (Mfum-Mensah, 2004).  Working together allows

the community to acknowledge and plan around crop planting and harvesting times, childcare responsibilities, and other

obligations that may limit children’s attendance at school.  While these ideas have helped to increase enrollment at the

primary level, particularly for girls, there still clearly continues to be a need for education on both the family and community

level on the benefits of literacy and education. 

            This study will attempt to gather information regarding family and community ideas about education, in particular, literacy instruction, by interviewing teachers who are working in Ghanaian primary schools.  Teachers may have the opportunity to interact with family members of their students and may have the benefit of also being community members, which may allow them to have both personal and professional views on the topic.  This information will hopefully add to the literature about current literacy education and provide policy makers with knowledge that will lead to culturally-responsive practices and reforms. 

Researcher Identity

Before beginning any qualitative study, it is critical for researchers to investigate their personal connections with the research in order to understand how their beliefs about the world may impact the way they interpret the data (Glesne, 2006; Maxwell, 2005; Schram, 2006).  Subjectivity does not have to negatively impact research and in fact, “instead of trying to suppress your feelings, you use them to inquire into your perspectives and interpretations to shape new questions through re-examining your assumptions” (Glesne, 2006, p.120).  As a school psychologist, former teacher, and researcher trained in quantitative methods, my lens undoubtedly impacted the way I viewed this research.

            I began my love of reading at an early age.  My mother was a former school librarian and my grandmother worked at the public library so books were always prevalent in my home.  Since literacy has played such a prominent role in my life, it is easy to understand why I feel so strongly about encouraging families to participate in literacy-related activities together.  As a third year doctoral student with a focus on literacy and the education of young diverse learners, I also understand the importance of systems on change, meaning that in order to change family views on education, one must understand the context of the community in which the family lives.  For example, while some families participate in more traditional literacy activities like storybook reading, storytelling and writing letters, families without access to books or other materials can also provide literacy-rich environments for their children.  After reading Ways with Words by Shirley Brice Heath (1982), I began to better understand how families and communities can provide literacy learning opportunities for their young members though activities such as singing, cooking, participating in religious ceremonies, and games.  This has lead me to be curious about how families in other countries perceive literacy and what, if any, cultural norms are placed on the family and community in relation to participation in children’s schooling. 

Method

Participants

            Prior to beginning this study, permission will be obtained by the Human Subjects Review Board at George Mason University.  Volunteers will be solicited from a group of teachers participating in a two-week literacy training program at the College of Education and Teacher Preparation in Winneba, Ghana.  Interviewees will be asked to participate in one interview session lasting approximately one hour.  Follow-up information may be obtained from the participants if needed by the researcher.  Interviews will be audio taped for later transcription; however field notes will be taken during the interview.  Participants will be guaranteed confidentially by the use of pseudonyms. Records identifying or linking participants to their responses will be kept in a secure location by the researcher.  Participants will be required to be a currently practicing primary school teacher in Ghana and should have at least one year teaching experience.  It is anticipated that most of the participants will be female.

Validity Concerns

Working with teachers from another county will pose unique challenges.  Since my questions are based on my own participation and perceptions of education in the United States and what I have read about Ghana, it may be possible that I will be off the mark with some of my inquiries.  I am also basing my thoughts on interviews from the ones I have participated in here in the United States, and I must be open to the idea that participating in an interview about classroom practices may raise concerns with the teachers in respect to what will happen with the data after it is collected.  Teachers may be uncomfortable in a one-to-one interview setting and/or they may be intimidated by lack of knowledge of some of the topics queried.   

Data Collection

In order to collect data on teacher perspectives, information will be collected using a semi-structured interview format, meaning I will use a variety of open-ended and close-ended (yes/no) questions to solicit the data (Fontana & Frey, 1998).  I will work with each teacher to find a day and time within the two-week period that will fit their schedule and will not interfere with their instructional time or preparation. The teachers will be asked a combination of open (discussion) and closed (yes/no) questions.  Probing with additional questions will be used as necessary to gather additional information or to clarify and answer.  The interview questions were developed based on my background knowledge in family literacy and the factors I wanted to study in regard to community, family, and school involvement in my workplace and they are located in Appendix A.  During the interviews, I plan to use reflective listening techniques that I was taught as a psychologist.  Reflective listening involves using nonverbal and verbal signs, such as eye contact, repeating information, and restating information as a question to prompt expansion, and can be a difficult technique to use well.  I plan to be aware of any cultural norms that reflective listening may impact and will adjust my techniques as necessary.  The interviews will last approximately one hour and will be audio taped and transcribed by the researcher for analysis.  Field notes will be collected during the interviews to compare to the transcribed information as a validity check. 

Data Analysis

After I conduct the interviews, I plan to use coding as a technique for analysis. At the beginning of my study, I determined that my questions appeared to be best suited to the qualitative approach using the chart on page 87 in Schram’s 2006 book.   I reviewed information on several methods including narrative and grounded and decided that I want to compare the data from the interviews to see what trends in family and community attitudes toward literacy education were present from the views of the teachers.  Additional reading appears to point to a constant comparison approach as the best fit.  (Creswell, 2005; Schram, 2006).  The constant comparison method looks for similarities and differences in the data and uses this information to develop categories for examination. The categories allow the researcher to look for relationships in the data and are a constantly changing process with the data guiding the direction of the interviews (Schram, 2006). 

After transcribing the interviews, I plan to use open emic coding as my first level of analysis.  “Coding is a progressive process of sorting and defining and defining and sorting those scraps of collected data…that are applicable to your research purpose”

(Glesne, 2006; p.152).    The goal will then be to use the sorted information to “facilitate comparison between things in the same category and aid in the development of theoretical concepts” (Maxwell, 2005; p.96).  Open, emic coding allows the researcher to use the participants own words to glean pieces of comparable information from the larger interview.  Emic codes will then be sorted into categories during a process know as axial coding (Maxwell, 2005).  In this project, I foresee the axial coding will use an etic perspective, meaning I will make the categories for comparison in my own words based on trends I see in the data.  When this is completed, I plan to compare the categories until I am able to “ground” my categories with the data (Creswell, 2005).

Expected Results

            Although I have not yet had the opportunity to meet or interview any teachers, during my coding  I believe that the educators will have a strong attachment to their students and will be vocal in the community to expressing the importance of participation in school.  I also think that school and home will be seen as separate entities, and when instruction time is completed, the remainder of the day for most students will be spent completing family obligations.  I do not think that the communities of the teachers interviewed will have much access to books or instructional materials and I believe that the training of most teachers in instructional methods for literacy will be limited.  Regardless of the positive or negative issues that come to light during the interviews, I believe that the information will be helpful to gaining an idea of what it means to be a student and/or teacher in Ghana.  This information may be beneficial to organizations who are working in the country to help them understand the challenges both face from a family and community view that may provide insight into ways to respect cultural norms while increasing educational possibilities for the youngest of Ghana’s citizens.

References

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Akiba, M, LeTendre, G, & Scribner, J.  (2007).  Teacher quality, opportunity gap, and

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Chapman, D., Barcikowski, E., Sowah, M., Gyamera, E., & Woode, G.  (2002).  Do

communities know best?  Testing a premise of educational decentralization:  Community members’ perceptions of their local schools in Ghana.  International Journal of Educational Development, 22, 181-189.

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http://main.edc.org/newsroom/press_releases/ghana_visit.asp

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Appendix A

Interview Questions

1. Can you describe for me the children in your classroom?
2. What subjects do you teach during the day and what kinds of reading activities do the children participate in?
3. In what ways are you able to communicate with the parents of your students?  Do they often visit the school?
4. Do you make home visits?
5. Do you often notice the children or their parents engaging in literacy activities at home?
6. Do students have access to books?
7. Did you attend school in Ghana?
8. Describe your own experience and what led you to become a teacher/
9. In what ways does the community support/not support your work at the school?
10. How do you think children learn the stories of the community?  Though song, dance, storytelling, ect.?
11. What are the greatest challenges that your students face to continuing on to secondary level?
12. Describe for me the biggest challenge you see for increasing literacy in Ghana.
13. What do you enjoy the most about working with your students?
14. Is there anything more you would like to share?