The Use of Intergenerational Family Literacy Programs in Urban Settings

Abstract

    Family literacy programs focus on the way that literacy activities in the home promote literacy growth in both children and adults.  Intergenerational programs, or programs that involve participants of different ages, provide an opportunity for community and cultural traditions to become part of the educational process.  Research has shown that by participating in family literacy programs, students reading and writing scores increase, as do the possibilities for increased communication and partnerships between families, schools, and communities.  Several programs in the United States have shown long-term benefits of intergenerational family literacy programs, however additional research is needed to fully understand their potential in the educational setting.

Introduction

    Parents are children’s first teachers and as such play an important role in developing their early literacy skills.  In the last 10-20 years, researchers have begun to closely examine the impact of factors, such as participation in literacy activities in the home setting and parent education levels, on the literacy development of children.  Family literacy programs, as these programs are called, are based on the view that families have systems of using literacy in their homes and communities, and that understanding these systems can help educators best work with parents to enhance their children’s learning (Crawford & Coe, 2006).   Participation in family literacy programs has traditionally been focused on preschool aged children and their parents, however recently researchers have started to examine programs that concentrate on building family literacy partnerships between parents and teachers of school-aged children.  Many of these family literacy programs are intergenerational in nature, meaning they involve family members of varying ages and may also expand the adult participants to include grandparents, aunts, uncles, or even involved adults from the community (Nurss, 2000).  Intergenerational programs treat the participants as “co-learners” who are working together to improve their literacy skills in “collaborative or parallel settings” that may be either in the home, the school, or in a combination of both (Morrow, Tracey, & Maxwell, 1995, pg.49).  Intergenerational family literacy programs can be especially successful in helping families in urban areas build connections between the home, school, and community (Nistler & Maiers,1999). In addition, they help change stereotypes about urban families showing that low income, minority, and/or immigrant families have great interest in their children’s literacy and bring a wealth of knowledge to learning that may not be recognized as the typical “school-based” instruction (Auerbach, 1995; Nistler & Maier, 1999).  This paper will provide a short history of the development of the fields of family and intergenerational literacy.  It will then highlight the types of family literacy programs currently being used in urban settings and will discuss how these programs can help to build effective partnerships between parents, teachers, and the community.  The paper will conclude with a discussion of considerations for future research on the impact of intergenerational family literacy programs in urban educational environments.

Family Literacy

Relationship to Emergent Literacy

    Family literacy is the study of how home and family-based practices affect the development of children’s literacy

skills.  It is a young area of research that developed from work in the area of emergent literacy.  “Emergent literacy

is concerned with the earliest phases of literacy development, the period between birth and the time when children

read and write conventionally” (Sulzby & Teale, 1991 p. 728).  Emergent literacy supports the concept thatchildren are

continuously learning how to use print and oral language from a series of interactions with their environment.  This theory is

in contrast to the “reading readiness” model that believes that “young children need to be taught a series of prerequisite

skills prior to reading, and that writing should be delayed until the children were reading” (Yaden, Rowe, & MacGillivary,

2000 p. 425).  In the early 1990’s, Mason and Sinha examined many of the early emergent literacy studies completed by

researchers including Clay and Heath, and determined perspectives that seemed to be present in each work.  These

perspectives included the ideas that literacy begins prior to formal instruction and includes more than just decoding and that

the child’s point of view and social setting have to be acknowledged (Mason & Sinah, 1993). 

    In 2000, Yaden et al. wrote a chapter for the Handbook of Reading Research, Vol.III that discussed emergent literacy in practice during storybook reading, play, and writing.  This article also addressed the impact of family effects on a child’s reading performance, citing 1992 and 1995 studies from Bus and van Ijzendoorn that asserted attachment between a mother and child “predicted the frequency of storybook reading in the home” (p.430).  In the same article, Yaden et al. discussed other recent literature involving the examination of emergent literacy in the home-based family setting.  These articles had close ties with the new theory of family literacy. 
Family Literacy Theory
    Like emergent literacy, the theory of family literacy is not well defined.  Early research in family literacy has sought to uncover relationships between home practices and school success, particularly in relation to families with low socio-economic status.  Researchers have looked at factors such as “parents’ educational level, the uses of print in the home, the number of books in the home, and the frequency of parent-child storybook reading events” (Purcell-Gates, 2000, p. 854) and their correlation to children’s performance in school.  Thomas, Fazio, and Stiefelmeyer (1999) adapted an earlier family literacy model from Nickse (1991) to identify four types of family literacy programs:  parents and children both receiving literacy instruction, parents only receiving instruction in how to engage in literacy skill building activities with their children, programs where adults provide additional literacy skill building by volunteering directly in the classroom, and programs that are offered to the community where adults and children can participate in literacy activities, like library story hour.  In their 2000 review for the Handbook of Early Childhood Intervention, Brooks-Gunn, Belin, & Fuligni discuss programs based on Nickse’s model as well as additional programs that do not provide a specific “adult education component” but “aim to improve children’s literacy and academic achievements by enhancing parent-child literacy interactions and family literacy environments” (Brooks-Gunn et.al., 2000, p. 557).  
Family literacy programs can be seen by educators as a way to connect home and school learning through the use of literacy activities (Pahl & Kelly, 2005).  However, in order for benefits to occur, parents have to be invested in the success of the program.  “Family literacy is not something that can be ‘done’ to people” (Neuman, Caperelli, & Kee, 1998).  Successful programs build on parents’ background knowledge and involve them in the planning and assessment of activities.  Unfortunately in the past, many family literacy programs have employed a “deficit” model, implying that the way families teach literacy skills is not sufficient compared to school models and should be “fixed” (Gadsden, 2000; Reyes & Torres, 2007).  

    Many researchers in the area of family literacy have described the presence of a deficit model in relation to the types of programs that have been supported by policy (Purcell-Gates, 2000; Caspe, 2003).  These deficit methods generally involve teaching parents how to work with their children in a certain way to increase literacy skills without collaborating to see how literacy fits into the student’s home and community.  Typically these types of programs have focused on preschool aged children and their parents and have centered on shared storybook reading.  The deficit model of family literacy instruction appears to stem from stereotypical views from both educators and parents.  The Harvard Family Research Project (2003) addresses the view from educators that families, particularly those with low incomes, do not understand the skills needed to promote child learning, therefore programs must educate parents in appropriate ways to aid in their child’s education.  Disappointingly this perception does not look at cultural practices or ways that literacy may already be used in the home (Caspe, 2003).  From the parent perspective, Edwards (2004) discusses problems with distrust, miscommunication, exclusion, and power struggles as a few of the main reasons for limited parent participation in schools. Recently, intergenerational family literacy programs have attempted to overcome these issues by partnering with parents to incorporate community literacy practices such as storybook reading, writing, oral storytelling, and cooking, into school literacy instruction (Nistler & Maiers, 1999; Edwards, 2004; Crawford & Zygouris-Coe, 2006). In addition, intergenerational programs in England and South Africa describe family literacy programs as providing a link or space between home and school where children and adults can understand and appreciate the link between the culture of the community, home, and school as related to literacy instruction (Nurss, 2000; Pahl & Kelly, 2005).

    Intergenerational family literacy and family literacy are terms that are often used interchangeably.  Intergenerational family literacy refers to programs that involve participants across age groups, for example, parents and children.  These programs examine a variety of facets of literacy education, including parental engagement in literacy activities with their children, the impact of participation in intergenerational experiences on literacy skill building of adults, the relationship of literacy to community history and values, supporting parenting skills, and addressing the needs of English language learners and their families (Gadsen, 2000).  Weinstein (1998) describes one of the goals of intergenerational family literacy programs as increasing school involvement for parents.  This can be done in a number of ways such as using school-based programs designed to help parents learn about catering the home environment to foster literacy skills, by training parents to volunteer in classroom, or by assisting parents with learning to communicate with school staff to advocate for their children’s educational success.  Intergenerational programs have expanded to include not only parents, but grandparents, siblings, aunts, uncles, and involved adults from the community and provide an opportunity for oral and written language traditions as well as cultural and family experiences to be handed down to new generations (Nurss, 2000).  In the urban community, intergenerational family literacy programs can work to raise educational expectations for children while providing an avenue for parents and teachers to open lines of communication (Handel, 1999).

Research in Preschool and Early Elementary School
    Although studies in the area of intergenerational family literacy continue to be somewhat limited, researchers have begun to investigate the impacts of these types of programs in both a qualitative and quantitative nature.  Looking at urban environments nationally and internationally, researchers have found that mothers’ participation in a school-based literacy intervention has lead to gains in their preschool-aged children’s reading and writing scores on standardized measures (Whitehurst, Arnold, Epstein, Angell, Smith, & Fischel, 1994; Aram & Biron, 2004; Saint-Laurent & Giasson, 2005, Weigel, Martin, & Bennett, 2005).  Specifically, these programs which focused on activities such as shared storybook reading and/or shared writing have found significant gains in preschoolers’ alphabet knowledge, vocabulary, word writing, and expressive and receptive language skills.  Increases have also been noted in the reading and writing scores of first grade students whose parents participated in a school-based family literacy program (Saint-Laurent & Giasson, 2005). 

     Qualitative research in intergenerational literacy programs has identified factors that appear to be significant to the literacy success of children participating in these programs from urban school settings.  Studies examining the relationship of home-reading participation on children ages three through seven have shown that parental reading behavior plays a large role in the reading experiences of younger children.  For example, research from the United States and the United Kingdom has highlighted the fact that parents in urban homes engage in a variety of reading styles when working with their children.  Morgan (2005) noted from her observations of mother-child reading sessions, that mothers from an urban, low socioeconomic neighborhood engaged in skills like questioning and making connections for their children that were before mainly attributed to higher socioeconomic status parents.  In addition, reading styles may be related to cultural and community roles of literature and by understanding them educators may help to bridge the differences between home and school literacy activities (Hammer, Nimmo, Cohen, Draheim, & Johnson, 2005).  Several studies have confirmed the importance of social interactions in literacy activities and have stressed the significance of parents modeling a positive attitude toward engaging in reading and writing (Baker, Mackler, Sonnenschein, & Serpell, 2001; Baker & Scher, 2002; Morgan, 2003; Hammer et al., 2005; Weigel, Martin, & Bennett, 2005).  Participation in a positive literacy experience with their parents may indirectly lead to increased motivation to participate in literacy activities and to engage in reading challenging materials (Baker et al., 2001).  Information from these studies clearly points to the importance for educators and parents to work together to create connections in family literacy programs that can provide participants with an experience that encourages the continuance of literacy activities in the home, school, and community settings.
Creating Parent, School, and Community Connections
    How do teachers and parents work together to create successful family literacy programs in urban areas?  A number of researchers working with intergenerational family literacy programs have written about factors they felt were required in order for a program to be successful.  The first factor described by researchers is the importance of having open lines of communication between families, schools, and communities (Auerbach, 1997; Nistler & Maiers, 1999; Armstutz, 2000).  This begins with both parents and teachers examining their preconceived theories about their involvement with literacy instruction, for instance, teachers assuming that urban parents are not interested in their children’s education and parents believing that they are not welcome in the school setting (Foote & Linder, 2000; Edwards, McMillon, Turner, & Laier, 2001).  Family literacy program give parents and educators a chance to move away from more traditional parent roles in the classroom such as chaperoning field trips, and into more of a partnership to promote children’s learning. 
Opening lines of communication also involves conducting a needs assessment for family literacy programs, goal setting, and evaluation.  In order for a program to be successful, the parents and teachers participating must be involved in planning and development.  Meeting with parents and community leaders about the needs of the family literacy program helps educators to understand the social and cultural contexts involved in literacy learning and allows them the possibility to partnering with existing programs, community agencies, or social networks (Newman, Caperelli, & Kee, 1998; Amstutz, 2000; Garcia & Hassin, 2004). Organizers of family literacy programs should engage in on-going assessment of the program and must be willing to adjust as new needs arise.  Interviews, observations, and surveys are all effective means for gathering this information (Elish-Piper,2000; Garcia & Hassin, 2004). 
    Effective intergenerational family literacy programs use a variety of materials and activities to meet the needs of their population.  In each case, participants should be involved in the planning and development of the activities and programs (Neuman, Caperelli, & Kee, 1998; Nistler & Maier, 1999).  Some examples of materials and activities that can be effective in the urban setting are home visits, newsletters, parent-teacher meetings, take home book programs, literacy learning kits, journaling, and involving parents as classroom tutors (Edwards, 2004; Crawford & Zygouris-Coe, 2006).  Even with parent and educator involvement in the development of a family literacy program, participants may continue to be hesitant about changing their home or classroom activities.  Programs may also experience difficulties with retention of participants.  These challenges should not be viewed as set backs to the success of an urban family literacy program, and instead should be used as the starting point for additional conversation about how to help the program better meet the needs of parents and educators. 
Examples of Successful Programs
    Examples of successful intergenerational family literacy programs exist in urban areas across the United States.  One of the most documented of these programs is the Intergenerational Literacy Project that began in 1989 in Chelsea, Massachusetts.  This program has an emphasis on the adult learning component, focusing on skills such as teaching adults basic literacy skills for home and community use. Parents attend classes four days per week while their preschool children are engaged in a school-based literacy program.  The Intergenerational Literacy Project also allows time for parents and children to interact in the classroom setting (Morrow, Tracey, & Maxwell, 1995; Paratore, 2001; Paratore, 2004).  Motheread, Inc. is an organization that was founded in 1987 in Raleigh, North Carolina, to teach parents how to serve as “reading models” for children.  Motheread works with a variety of populations including urban, rural, and incarcerated parents to help improve both their reading and writing skills so they can effectively support their children’s literacy development (Morrow, Tracey, & Maxwell, 1995).  The Toyota Families for Learning Program is supported by a grant from the Toyota Motor Corporation and serves to help parents across the United States by providing adult and early childhood education programs.  Other successful programs that bring parents into the classroom are The Parents as Classroom Storybook Readers Project in Boston and the Roving Readers program in Washington, D.C.  Both programs train parents to serve as volunteer readers in their children’s classrooms, allowing children to see their parents in as literacy role-models and helping parents and teachers to build relationships (Paratore, 2001; Teaching for Change, 2006).  Each of these examples is a testament to the importance of developing and continuing intergenerational family literacy programs in urban areas. 

    Intergenerational family literacy programs can be an effective means for increasing the literacy skills of both children and adults in urban settings.  Intergenerational programs are based in the belief that all parents can participate in the literacy education of their children.  In urban settings, this becomes especially important for opening lines of communication between teachers and parents who may have preconceived notions about what the other brings to the classroom.  Intergenerational family literacy programs also attempt to promote the role of culture and community in literacy development.  Research in this area has shown positive gains in the reading and writing performance of children whose parents participated in family literacy programs.  Studies also highlighted the gains in building partnerships between families, schools, and communities. 
    Much additional research however is needed in the area of intergenerational family literacy.  Caspe (2003) asserts that family literacy programs need to focus on documentation and evaluation to show the benefits of their programs, since limited research has not proven them to be more or less effective than programs that address parents and children’s literacy education separately.  In addition, many of the studies previously conducted have focused solely on the participation of mothers.  More information is required to understand the impact the use of these programs with fathers, siblings, and other adults that play a role in children’s lives.  Limited populations, participant retention, and information based on single observations are additional problem areas that should be considered by researchers interested in pursuing this line of inquiry. 
    Despite the difficulties with research, intergenerational family literacy programs appear to have the potential to significantly impact the literacy skills of both adults and children in urban, suburban, and rural areas.   The importance of understanding cultural and community influences on learning is vital to improving educational settings and to promoting understanding and partnerships between parents and educators. Intergenerational family literacy programs have the ability to create these links in the spaces between home and school to bring families, communities, and schools together to provide comprehensive literacy instruction to needing individuals. 

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