Abstract

      Poverty is an issue that affects over 13 million children in the United States.  Research has shown that economic challenges can affect educational performance in a number of ways, ranging from food insecurity to difficulties with completing schoolwork because of outside demands.  Recent studies have found resiliency factors that may help children living in “at-risk” situations to adaptive to their environment and become successful students.  School psychologists have a unique opportunity to build relationships with students, teachers, and parents that may aid in the development of these protective factors.  By providing strategies and information, school psychologists can help educators set high expectations for all students and help increase student interest in learning. 

Student Poverty and the School Psychologist: What We Should Know as Practitioners and How We Can Help

    We were sitting at a table in an unused staff room, struggling to finish the last section of a language arts assignment that my elementary school “buddy” needed to do before the end of our tutoring session.  “We might be moving,” Julie blurted out while writing a sentence.  “Why,” I asked.  “We live with my grandpa and he’s supposed to be in jail.  We have to move before they find him.  Mom and I can’t pay to live by ourselves.”  This partial conversation, reconstructed from memory, was my introduction as a college student in West Virginia, to the challenges faced by students living in poverty.  Little did I realize that my volunteer work with an “at-risk” student would turn out to be the beginning of a career-long interest in helping children overcome environmental and economic barriers to become successful students.

    As a naïve college student, I wasn’t sure how to reply to Julie.  I was shocked on so many levels: that her grandfather was avoiding the law, that she might be leaving, that her mother couldn’t afford to take care of her.  Over ten years later, students like Julie have become the norm for my practice.  Through my development as a teacher and then a school psychologist, I hope that I have gained a better understanding of what students face before they enter the school hallways.  This article will provide a brief review of some of the recent literature regarding the impact of poverty on education and share reflections of what I have learned as an educator about the struggles many of our students confront on a daily basis.  I hope that my reflections might give other educators a chance to examine their own practices and possibly use some of the strategies and references that I have found helpful to my own career. 

When you hear the word “poverty” what image comes to mind?  Inner city children living in crowded apartments, rural children living miles from town with no running water or electricity, homeless children, children with single parents?   Despite the many stereotypes that are prevalent in American society, there is no one group that embodies what it means to live without the necessary income to be a self-sufficient individual.  In her book, A Framework for Understanding Poverty, Payne writes in her key points that “poverty is relative” (Payne, 1996, p.2).  It can be present in all cultures and exists based on the expectations of social surroundings.  Books concurs with this statement in her 2004 book, Poverty and Schooling in the U.S.  She notes that poverty can be measured against both absolute and relative standards based on the community where individuals live.  “In rich countries like the United States, the latter (relative standards of basic needs) probably requires at a minimum not only food, housing, and clothing, but also electric and phone services, reliable transportation, and child care for the large majority of parents who work outside the home” (Books, 2004, p. 56).

Poverty can exist in two different forms, generational and situational.  Payne (1996) describes generational poverty as “being in poverty for two generations or longer.”  She explains situational poverty as a short-term state caused by life circumstances.  Divorce and unemployment are two examples of causes of situational poverty.  Statistics show that the national standard of poverty in the United States in 2005 was an annual income of $19,806 for a four- person family (United States Census Bureau, 2005). This figure has been disputed in studies by agencies, including the Economic Policy Institute and Wider Opportunities for Women, who believe that the real expenses for families in most areas fall well above this line. In addition,  “employment does not guarantee to remove families from poverty” (Kids Count in Virginia, 2001).  Information from the Children’s Defense Fund states that 13 million children under age 18 live below the poverty line and 7 out of 10 children who experience poverty live in families with working parents (Children’s Defense Fund, 2006). 

Living in poverty can have significant effects on the health and welfare of school-age children.    The Children’s Defense Fund website reports that “over 13 million children face food insecurity (Children’s Defense Fund, 2006),” which is defined as “having access to enough food at all times for active, healthy living (Children’s Defense Fund, 2006).”  Dr. J. Larry Brown, Executive Director of the Center on Hunger and Poverty, stated in a 2002 report that children facing food insecurity “miss more days of school and are less prepared to learn when they are able to attend, making the relationship between hunger, health, and learning of far greater importance than we previously realized (Center on Hunger and Poverty, 2002).  Additionally, studies have shown that 6-11 year old children who lived with food insecurity had lower math scores and were more likely to have repeated a grade than students without food concerns (Center on Hunger and Poverty, 2006).    Other facts that may affect children living in poverty are frequent moves, exposure to lead, lack of health care, and lack of school supplies. 

According to the Kids Count website information, California and Virginia were two states who had 18% of children living below the poverty line in 2004 (Kids Count, 2005).  Specifically in Virginia, the 2005 Kids Count Data Book documents that the percentage of children living in poverty in the generally affluent Virginia suburbs of Washington D.C. runs from 6.1% in Fairfax County to 9.5% in Arlington County (Kids Count, 2005).  A 2005 report from Children Now stated that 40% of California’s children were considered low income (Children Now, 2005).  With statistics like these, it is easy to realize that students with great needs will be present in the average classroom setting and it is imperative for educators to understand how a child’s socioeconomic background may affect the way he/she performs in school.

Poverty and Education

In the past 15 years, the impact of poverty on a child’s educational performance has been an important and controversial topic in research literature.  In the book Better Schooling for the Children of Poverty, editors Knapp and Shields (1991) discuss in their Introduction three areas of difficulty in education that may lead to gaps in the academic achievement of poor children: lack of mastery of basic skills, problems with “establishing and maintaining an orderly environment in classrooms,” and cultural differences between students (Knapp & Shields, 1991, p. 2).  Despite the fact that 15 years have passed since Knapp and Shield edited their volume, the gap between the educational performance of students living in poverty versus students without economic challenges continues to be a prevalent topic on local, state, and federal levels. For example, education writer Jonathan Kozol has addressed the topic in his books, including The Shame of the Nation (2005), and the National Education Association has created the Culture Abilities Resilience Effort  (2005) curriculum designed to help teachers identify and bridge achievement gaps in their classrooms. The November 2005 issue of NEA Today and the March 2006 issue of the Virginia Journal of Education both had articles specifically devoted to the topic.  “Most experts agree that a range of socioeconomic factors leave poor and minority students at a disadvantage even before they enter the schoolhouse doors.  The extent to which schools should be expected to overcome that disadvantage has prompted considerable debate” (Learning Points Associates, 2006, p.1).  Trouble with completing homework because of outside responsibilities for parents and students and problems with recruiting and retaining staff in schools with a high population of low socio-economic status children remain critical issues for schools as do shortages of funding for each student (Books, 2004, Learning Points Associates, 2006). 

In an effort to address these concerns, in 2002, the federal government signed the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) into law.  This legislation called for increased federal involvement in tracking the progress of students in schools that receive federal funding.  The passing of the law mandated new accountability standards, including statewide standardized tests and requiring all teachers in classrooms to meet “highly qualified” standards.  In addition, parents are given the option to transfer their children out of low performing schools. (United States Department of Education, 2005) While NCLB continues to incur strong criticism, its development demonstrates the crucial need to address gaps in the education program of many students, particularly those who have cultural differences or who have economic challenges.  The National Association for School Psychologists (NASP) addresses some of the NCLB concerns related to poverty in its position paper on early childhood care and education by encouraging school psychologists to support the development of early childhood education programs, working to involve parents in the education process, and using non-discriminatory practices.  Some examples of other ways that school psychologists can address the effects of poverty on education are promoting resiliency in children by working individually with students and by partnering with the larger school community to encourage practices that foster resiliency skills.

    Resiliency is an area of research that has enjoyed substantial gains in the last 20 years.  After reviewing the work of several researchers, Milstein and Henry (2000) have described resiliency as the “capacity to meet challenges and become more capable as a result of these experiences” (Milstein & Henry, 2000, p.11). Benard (1991) and Werner (2000) discuss several factors that they believe need to be present in order for a child to develop resiliency.  The first area is social competence.  Benard defines this as including “responsiveness, flexibility, empathy and caring, communication skills, and a sense of humor”(Benard, 1991, p.5).  Werner describes the students as “being well liked by peers and adults (Werner, 2000, p.122). Problem-solving skills are the second factor that is identified.  Students need to be able to “think abstractly, reflectively, and flexibly, and to be able to attempt alternative solutions for both cognitive and social problems”(Bernard, 1991, pp. 4-5).  Werner characterizes these problem-solving skills as “reflective rather than impulsive” (Werner, 2000, p.122).  Next, children should have autonomy, or “a sense of one’s own identity and an ability to act independently and exert some control over one’s environment” (Benard, 1991, pp.5-6, Werner, 2000).  The authors differ on their fourth factors. Benard describes her factor as children, “must have a sense of purpose and future” (Benard, 1991, p. 6). Particularly in the school setting, this could imply the need for students to understand how a successful education can lead to wider opportunities and life choices. Werner, however, lists her fourth factor as the ability to “use flexible coping strategies in overcoming adversity” (Werner, 2000, p.122).   Overall then, scholars have indicated that developing good social understanding and problem-solving skills in children is a part of the educational process that should not be ignored.

    When talking about resiliency, Felner (2005) reminds us that it is important to note that although children who live in poverty may be exposed to “at-risk” situations, this does not necessarily make them individuals who are at “high risk” meaning they are “more fragile or vulnerable than all of those in lower risk groups” (Felner, 2005, p. 132).  In fact, he states that “individuals may have acquired…or proximal environmental conditions in their homes or schools, on an individual basis they may be less likely, and therefore less at risk, than certain specific youth not in poverty” (Felner, 2005, p. 132).  In their updated edition of Resiliency in Schools, Henderson and Milstein (2003) describe six factors that can serve as “protective factors” that can help foster resiliency.   They are: “increasing bonding, set clear and consistent boundaries, teach life skills, provide caring and support, set and communicate high expectations, and provide opportunities for meaningful participation” (Henderson & Milstein, 2003, pp.11-14).  School psychologists have the ability to become involved with building resiliency in students in a variety of ways.  Beyond working individually with students, school psychologists can become involved system-level changes, for example, by developing collaborations with outside agencies and implementing school or system-wide program that build respect in the education community (Crockett, 2003).  School psychologists can also provide teachers with strategies to help build protective relationships with their students by providing information about child development and by giving ideas of ways to open lines of communication with their students (Nastasi & Bernstein, 1998). 

Implications for School Psychologists

Social Consciousness
    How does all of this information relate to what have I learned from working with students who face economic challenges?  Besides the obvious notion of being thankful for my ability to meet and work with these young people, I have learned many things about respect for others and always keeping high standards for every student.  As a teacher and a school psychologist I have been fortunate to work with wonderful students with a variety of challenges.  First, the importance of meeting and respecting their families has been the key to helping them become more successful in school.  I have also learned that sometimes you have to triage.  Even if a student is coming to you for reading help, you may have to spend part of your instructional time building trust with that student by giving him or her the opportunity to share what is on their mind because when you are not sure if there will be food for dinner, it is hard to concentrate on writing down homework assignments.  One student that I have spent a great deal of time with has many challenges.  He is identified as a special education student, has an incarcerated parent, and lives well below the poverty line, in fact at several points during the year there was no income coming into the home.  Once when the student had been absent for several days, I visited his home with the school social worker and had a short counseling session with him, only to find that there was no heat and limited food in the house.  Instead of working with directly with the student on strategies to improve his classroom behavior and assignment completion, I chose to spend many hours that day behind the scenes with other professionals to ensure that he would have heat and food in his home for the weekend.  Did this mean I was behind on my scheduled work?  Absolutely, but in order to reach students from poverty, it is important to identify and address the basic needs first.  Books (2004) says, “Teachers must respond with competence and compassion to ‘drowning’ children.  Yet teachers also need to understand why so many children are in this situation to start with and to know more than many do about their students and the broader social/cultural context of their lives” (p.2).  While education professionals like teachers and school psychologists cannot end poverty for their students or “fix” their home lives, compassion goes a long way to building bridges of resiliency that may be the one thing that keeps a student in school.  I realize that school psychologists do not always have the opportunity to make home visits and spend time securing services for children’s families, however sometimes going the extra mile can not only provide the student and their family with needed supplies, it can also help foster a relationship that may serve as a protective factor. 

Academic Concerns
    Some students with economic challenges may have difficulty finding time and space at home to complete homework assignments, possibly leading to academic difficulties.  School psychologists can work with teachers to find ways to keep high quality standards for work production, while providing flexible and creative ideas for times when students can complete there work.  Sometimes encouragement is all that is needed to spark interest in learning.  Once when I gave a 5^th grade student a book as a birthday present, he responded to the gift saying, “I can’t read.”  I sat for 30 minutes with him, picking out poems in the book that I knew he would like and could decode and understand.  By the time he left my office, he wanted to read one of the poems to his classroom teacher.  This same student spent extended time sitting in front of a blank piece of paper one day when he was in in-school suspension.  After helping him map out some ideas, I told him that I would return in 5 minutes to check his work on one sentence.  When I returned, he had written two!    Demonstrating to the student that I was willing to help while maintaining the expectation that he would complete his work, empowered him to attempt to read and write even though he was unsure about his abilities. 

            Additional strategies I have seen or used that appear to work well with economically-challenged students are sending home books every night that they can read independently, pairing them as reading buddies with younger students, and providing conferencing to help organize ideas for writing projects.  Using visuals to help students understand information from their reading and helping students to identify what they want to share or learn from each assignment helps children to critically think about information and make connections to things they already know or are familiar with in their own lives.  Taking time to ask students what they have learned or need help with often is an eye-opening experience; however you may just have to ask your questions in a roundabout way.  For example, asking a student, “Tell me what you read,” is a very ambiguous statement.  Instead, scaffold thought-provoking questions as the student is reading or give him/her a structure to follow to report on a story in his/her journal and allow illustrations.  By using these kinds of strategies, we show students that we expect a high-level of understanding and participating in learning, while also demonstrating that we realize their need for direct instruction. 

Motivation for Learning
  Another premise I have established from my work with students from poverty is to kickstart their motivation for learning by exposing them to information about important people, ideas, and places.  Encourage their creativity.  When I was a special education teacher, I wanted to take my students on a trip to a famous home of a president.  Some other educators wondered what they would get out of the trip, but as we studied the president and his accomplishments, it became clear to me that my students needed and wanted to experience history first-hand.  Although a few of my students came from backgrounds where they could have provided money for the trip, most of them would not have been able to pay the amount that was required for us to rent the school bus.  After much thought and planning, I asked my administrator if there was any way that the cost of the trip could be covered.  Amazingly he found some extra money in the budget and got us our bus.  After the trip was over, I was overjoyed at the experience my students had received.  They asked questions of the guides and participated in all the activities.  In another example, the elementary school that I attended as a child, which is declared a low-income school by the Department of Education, decided to take all of the students in one grade to the National Aquarium and Fort McHenry in Baltimore, which is about 60 miles away from the school.  By asking for community and private donations, the school was able to provide this once-in-a-lifetime trip to many of its neediest students. 

            The moral I learned from these stories is to never give up on trying to foster cultural and informational experiences for your students.  Not everyone has the ability to ask for extra money for field trips, but you can help provide students with enriching activities to experience the world in their classroom.  One class I visited in a high need school recently opened an Egyptian museum in their room.  The students made projects and became experts on specific areas of Egyptian life.  They served as docents for their peers and teachers in the school who visited.  My aunt, who has taught in low-income areas throughout the country, hosts a festival every year based on a new theme.  Her students have experienced life in ancient Greece and have become characters in their favorite books.  While these activities have required much time and energy on the part of the teacher and school staff, bringing these experiences to the classroom of students who may not have access to experiential trips can provide alternative ways for them to become actively involved in learning. 

            School psychologists can step out of their traditional assessment role by offering to work with students on creating items for the event or simply by attending and acknowledging the both the students’ and teacher’s hard work.  Taking part in these types of activities provides opportunities for rapport building with staff and students, particularly when working on complex cases where trust can be an issue.  In the movement to using response-to-intervention as a prevention and assessment measure, becoming involved in the classroom activities of the students in your building can go a long way toward helping develop ideas for working with students who may have challenges to their learning that may not be appropriate for special education intervention but are nonetheless significantly impacting student performance.  School psychologists can also find creative ways to increase motivation for learning by using computers as rewards for students with behavior charts, allowing students to “buy” art/school supplies with “money” earned from behavior contracts, and by exploring websites or books with students to learn about ways of thinking that may be different from their own.

Resources

            Although the strategies I have described will not “cure” the problems of children experiencing economic challenges, they offer opportunities for school psychologists to become involved in partnerships with students, teachers, and parents.  We have a responsibility to ensure non-biased assessments and counseling practices for all of our students.  We also have a responsibility to be familiar with our communities and with resources that are available to teachers and families.  Tolerance.org, the website of the Southern Poverty Law Center, has links for professionals and children that are valuable for understanding the lives of those facing economic challenges.  The Children’s Defense Fund is a wealth of information regarding the lives of children both in the United States and internationally, including links to the “Shout” and “Sprout” programs.  Poverty USA has a website that has information and statistics, a video, and lesson plans divided by age group.  These are just a few resources that may be helpful to education professionals.  The bibliography at the end of the article contains a more extensive list and a search on the Internet will no doubt provide numerous sources of information on poverty and resiliency and resources in your area.

Conclusions

     I am still early in my career as a school psychologist and have many things yet to learn about working with students from poverty and their families.  Research clearly shows that poverty can affect academic performance and yet many students who have the most need are still not afforded the supplies and instruction required to reach their potential.  Although I have worked with too many students to highlight each of their stories here, the importance of respect and patience has been a constant throughout my work with each of them.  When students realize they have a safe environment for learning and high standards to adhere to, many of them will step up to the challenge of becoming involved in their own learning.  While we as education professionals cannot “fix” the economic problems of our students, we can level their playing field so that they can experience success in their school community.  School psychologists have a unique ability to address these issues by a variety of means if we are creative and willing to step out of our comfort zones to find new ways to build relationships with the students, teachers, and families in our schools.  By working to provide early intervention and prevention services, we as school psychologists can help our schools move toward decreasing the challenges that students from poverty face in the educational setting. 

References

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Books, S. (2004).  Poverty and Schooling in the U.S.  Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum

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Center on Hunger and Poverty (2002).  The consequences of hunger and food insecurity

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pitfalls of school-based resilience programs [Electronic Version]. School Psychology Review, 27 (3). Retrieved June 13, 2006 from http://www.nasponline.org/publications/sprsum273.html

National Association of School Psychologists (2002).  Position statement on early

childhood care and education.  Retrieved July 15, 2006 from http://nasponline.org/information/pospaper_earlychild.html.

Payne, R. (2005).  A Framework for Understanding Poverty.  Highlands, TX: aha!

Process, Inc.

United States Census Bureau (2005).  Poverty thresholds.  Retrieved July 11, 2006 from

http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/poverty/threshld.html.

United States Department of Education (2005).   Facts and terms every parent should

know about NCLB.  Retrieved June 13, 2006 from http://www.ed.gov/nclb/ overview/intro/parents/parentfacts.html.

Werner, W. (2000). Protective factors and individual resilience. In J. Shonkoff & S.

Meisels (Eds.) Handbook of Early Childhood Intervention, Second Edition

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