The Interstate as a Socio-Technological System
Technology in the Contemporary United States
HNRS 253.002, Spring 2001
Meeting time: Mon/Wed, 1:30 – 2:45, rm. 278, Enterprise Hall
Instructor contact information:
Jonathan L. Gifford
George Mason University, Mail stop 3F4
Fairfax, VA 22030 (U.S.A.)
Tel: 703-993-1395; fax 801-749-9198
Internet: jgifford@gmu.edu
http://mason.gmu.edu/~jgifford
Office Hours: Wed, 3:00 – 4:00, Robinson Hall, rm. A211, or by appointment.
To most people, the Interstate highway system is an integral part of everyday life that they think of only when it doesn’t work—when a fuel tanker flips over and closes the Beltway or when sitting in traffic in the middle of nowhere on the night before Thanksgiving. When it’s working right, they pretty much take it for granted.
But the Interstate system is actually the product of more than a century of American highway policy and implementation. Its planning began before World War II; and its construction was the centerpiece of national highway policy in the post-war era. Many hailed its completion in the 1980s as a triumph. Others view the Interstate program as a terrible mistake that has led to a car-dependent culture that fosters urban sprawl and air pollution. Many social and environmental activists fought the Interstate’s construction in “Freeway Revolts” around the country during the 1960s and 1970s.
Controversy continues today about whether we should build more highways to relieve congestion. Does that just lead to more traffic, pollution and sprawl? Should we invest instead in public transit? Northern Virginia Congressman Frank Wolf wants to add lanes to I-66 inside the Beltway, which has revived opposition in Arlington and affected communities. Virginia governor Jim Gilmore has repeatedly clashed with northern Virginia business and government officials about how much the Commonwealth should invest in highway improvements. Fairfax County has asked the Commonwealth to allow it to hold a referendum to raise its sales tax by one percent and dedicate the proceeds to transportation and school improvements. And Maryland’s governor Parris Glendening has made “smart growth” a centerpiece of his administration.
This course examines the history and development of the Interstate highway system, and the role it has played in the development of modern America. Like it or not, America is a car culture, and the Interstate plays an integral part in that. Through books, articles, archives, films, field trips and creative research projects, the class will discover the social and technical context of the Interstate program, its impacts on cities and suburbs, on industry, on the environment, and on society at large.
By using the Interstate as an in-depth case study, the course also examines broader questions about how our society perceives and manages complex socio-technological systems. How well can we predict the impacts of such systems? How can we govern them responsibly? Does technology ultimately pose a threat to environmental stewardship and community preservation?
The course requires an ungraded essay, three short papers (10 % each), a midterm (20 %), a final (20 %), a creative research project (20 %), and class participation (10 %).
Prior to the class meeting of Monday, January 22, write a brief biographical essay describing your background, experience, and any particular interests or objectives for the course. Include your name (and nickname if you’d like me to use one), contact information (address, phone numbers, e-mail address) and e-mail it to the instructor at jgifford@gmu.edu.
For the class meeting on Wednesday, January 24 write a 250-word essay on the subject: “What have been the biggest benefit and the greatest harm of Interstate highway system for society?” Bring three copies of the essay to class, one to hand in and two to share for critique with your colleagues. As resources, you can use the websites of two organizations, the American Highway Users Alliance (www.highways.org) and the Surface Transportation Policy Project’s Transportation Action Network (www.transact.org).
Students are strongly advised to select a thematic area that interests
them, and use it for the duration of the course as a basis for their three
papers, and for their creative research projects. For example, a student might
select the environmental impacts of the Interstate, civil rights, urban
planning, economic efficiency, the housing sector, the retail sector,
transportation planning, or another subject. Having a thematic area will enable
some efficiencies in researching materials for the papers and the creative
research project. You may change your thematic area if you find after exploring
it that it doesn’t really interest you.
Paper #1. Write a 500-word paper about the role that technical and political factors play and should play in setting highway policy. You may focus your discussion on your selected thematic area if you wish.
Paper #2. In a paper of about 750 words, compare and contrast the ideas of technological determinism and social construction as explanations for the 20th century American highway program. You may focus your discussion on your selected thematic area if you wish.
Paper #3. In a paper of approximately 1000 words, agree or disagree with the idea that highway expansion should be limited in order to control urban sprawl. Clearly state your position and defend it. You may focus your discussion on your selected thematic area if you wish.
The midterm and final examinations will be in-class, closed book, and closed note. Typically, an exam will present three to four essay questions, from which the student is permitted to select two or three to respond. The format may vary at the instructor’s option. Please bring a blue book to the exam.
One of the major activities of the course is the creative research project, which accounts for 20 percent of your final grade. This project should examine some aspect of the impact of highways and transportation on society. It might take a number of forms: a term paper, a website, a video, a play – it’s really up to the student to decide, with the instructor’s approval.
While it should be creative, remember that this is a research project. That means it needs to be based on research. Your final product should include a discussion of your methodology, that is, what kind of source materials you used, how you analyzed them, and what rules you used for drawing inferences. Also, hand in or include in your final product a list of references cited and source material used.
Creative research projects will be presented to the class at the end of the semester, and part of the grade will be based on the quality of the presentation.
Group Projects: You may work individually, or in a group of your own choosing. Remember, groups require management; make sure to staff that function! Choose a group leader for groups of 3 or more. Group leaders should be responsible for reports to class on project status, etc. Everyone in a group gets the same grade, so beware of free riders!
The class is discussion oriented. The instructor does very little formal lecturing. We will start each class with 10-15 minutes of discussion of current events and “found objects” before moving to discussion of the day’s assigned materials. Students should follow current events by reading a daily newspaper (on-line or hardcopy) and monitoring it for stories that relate to the class subject matter. Students should also look for “found objects” like photos, events, or things that typify or epitomize particular issues, problems or points of view.
Class discussions of assigned material will begin with a two- to three-minute summary and critique by two students. The instructor uses a system called “warm calling” (as opposed to cold calling), whereby the instructor assigns primary and secondary discussants for each of the day’s assigned readings to students at the beginning of the class, before the current events discussion. Discussants then have a few minutes during the current events discussion to review their notes and prepare their discussion. The primary discussant will start, followed by the secondary.
Discussions should be two or three minutes long, no more. They should consist of a brief summary of the two or three (no more) key points in the reading, and a critique. Do not attempt to summarize the entire reading; rather, focus on what you believe are the two or three key points. The critique should be the student’s assessment of work. Is it objective or does it favor a particular point of view? What kind of sources or data does it use? How does it differ from other material? The instructor will grade each discussion, and note students who are not prepared. These discussion grades will be used as the partial basis for the class participation grade.
Suggestion. To prepare for discussion, write in your notes after completing each assigned reading its key two or three points and your critical assessment of it, just a few sentences that can provide the basis of your class discussion in case you are called upon for that reading.
Classroom attendance is required. Students are permitted a maximum of two absences for any reason. For absences beyond the two allowed, students must write a 500-word graded essay on the subject of the missed class.
The universe of source material about highways and their societal impact is vast and diverse. Because it has been the subject of a great deal of controversy, much of the material evinces a particular point of view or agenda. Environmentalists assert that it has “caused” urban “sprawl,” dependence on foreign oil sources, and air pollution. The motor vehicle industry emphasizes its contribution to low prices and economic efficiency. Auto safety advocates emphasize how Interstate safety features make them the safest highways.
Assigned source material for the course will draw on a broad range of these materials, including books, articles, websites and films. There are three required texts:
1) Tom Lewis, Divided Highways: Building the Interstate Highways, Transforming American Life (New York: Viking, 1997).
2) Clay McShane, Down the Asphalt Path: The Automobile and the American City, Columbia History of Urban Life (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994).
3) James A Dunn, Driving Forces: The Automobile, Its Enemies, and the Politics of Mobility (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1998).
Other readings are identified in the reading list. Readings packets will be available for purchase. Additional readings may be added for the second half of the semester.
Sources of research material for papers and the creative research projects are readily available on campus and through the Internet. Internet sources are growing by the day. A good place to start is the “Research Guide” compiled by the library staff, in cooperation with your instructor. It is available online at http://library.gmu.edu/research/trans.pdf and contains:
· Lists of transportation reference materials, including handbooks and encyclopedias;
· Statistical sources;
· Special collections, including George Mason’s collections of papers, archives and manuscripts, such as the American Public Transit Association archive;
· Journals;
· Searchable databases;
· Academic transportation libraries; and
· Transportation-related websites.
In addition to the websites listed there, you may wish to consult the following:
· The Reason Public Policy Foundation (http://www.rppi.org/)
·
Transportation Action Network (www.transact.org).
· American Highway Users Alliance (www.highways.org)
Remember that some sources are more credible than others, and it’s up to you the researcher to evaluate the credibility of a source and the particular facts, ideas or positions it advances. Note again that much of the source material you find may not be objective and may advocate a particular point of view or perspective. All source material is not created equal!!! Part of your job as a researcher is to exercise your critical skills to assess the reliability and objectivity of source material.
1) You cannot use a paper from another course without explicit instructor approval.
2) Paper Length. Word counts specified for papers are exclusive of footnotes, endnotes, or appendix material. Please note the word count on the cover page.
3) Papers must be typed and double-spaced.
4) Papers should have a cover page, but do not put papers in covers, binders or any other kind of package.
5) No late assignments will be accepted without the instructor’s approval in advance.
6) Papers with unacceptable errors in spelling and grammar will be returned for correction prior to grading and penalized 5 points per day until turned back in correctly.
7)
The instructor may ask to review your source material. Do
not discard it for at least a month after your final paper is turned in.
8) Plagiarism. Be careful and systematic in the way you quote and credit source material
in order to avoid plagiarism, which may result in Honor Code violations.
9) Style
a)
The term “style” refers to the way a paper treats
headings, footnotes, bibliographic citations, illustrations, tables, etc. In
professional writing, it is important to be aware of style and to follow the
appropriate style guidelines for what you are writing. You should choose and
adhere to a particular style.
b) In addition, papers for this course require the following: (i) identify your sources in footnotes; (ii) include source information for all figures and tables; (iii) include a bibliography of all source material at the end of your paper.
c) For the citation of e-mail messages, World Wide Web sites, and other items on the Internet, follow the format specified in “Beyond the MLA Handbook: Documenting Electronic Sources on the Internet” <http://english.ttu.edu/kairos/1.2/inbox/mla_archive.html> (June 10, 1996).
10) Grading criteria (approximate)
a) Technical content: 65%.
b) Writing quality: 25%.
c) Style and appearance: 10
Session
|
Date |
Reading/Topic |
Homework |
|
1 |
1/17 (Wed) |
Introduction |
|
Unit 1: Highway System Planning and Development |
|||
|
2 |
1/22 (Mon) |
Film (in class): “The World that Moses Built” Lewis, pp. ix-92 |
Bio sketch (via e-mail) |
|
3 |
1/24 (Wed) |
|
|
|
4 |
1/29 (Mon) |
Lewis, pp. 93-175 |
Ungraded Essay |
|
5 |
1/31 (Wed) |
Lewis, pp. 177-260 |
|
|
6 |
2/5 (Mon) |
Lewis, pp. 261-294 |
|
|
7 |
2/7 (Wed) |
AASHTO 1991, 1-57 |
|
|
8 |
2/12 (Mon) |
AASHTO 1991, 58-92 |
|
|
9 |
2/14 (Wed) |
Pucher, et al. 1998 |
|
|
10 |
2/19 (Mon) |
Film (in class): “Divided Highways” (1997) |
Paper #1 |
|
11 |
2/21 (Wed) |
|
|
|
12 |
2/26 (Mon) |
McShane, pp. 1-40 |
|
|
13 |
2/28 (Wed) |
Midterm exam – bring blue book |
|
|
|
3/5 (Mon) |
Spring Break |
|
|
|
3/7 (Wed) |
||
|
14 |
3/12 (Mon) |
McShane, pp. 41-80 |
|
|
15 |
3/14 (Wed) |
McShane, pp. 81-124 |
|
|
16 |
3/19 (Mon) |
McShane, pp. 125-228 |
|
|
17 |
3/21 (Wed) |
Dunn 1998 |
Paper #2 |
|
18 |
3/26 (Mon) |
|
|
Unit 2: Technological Determinism and Social Construction |
|||
|
19 |
3/28 (Wed) |
Cowan 1997, 224-248 Pool 1997, 3-15 |
|
|
20 |
4/2 (Mon) |
Smith 1986 Marx 1987 |
|
|
21 |
4/4 (Wed) |
Rosenberg and Birdzell 1990 |
|
|
22 |
4/9 (Mon) |
Cronon 1995 Cronon 1995 |
Paper #3 |
|
23 |
4/11 (Wed) |
TBA |
|
|
24 |
4/16 (Mon) |
TBA |
|
|
25 |
4/18 (Wed) |
TBA |
|
|
26 |
4/23 (Mon) |
Final projects/presentation |
Creative research project |
|
27 |
4/25 (Wed) |
” ” |
|
|
28 |
4/30 (Mon) |
” ” |
|
|
|
5/2 (Wed) 1:30 – 4:15 |
Final
exam – bring blue book
|
|
AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials). The States and the Interstates: Research on the Planning, Design and Construction of the Interstate and Defense Highway System. Washington, D.C.: The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 1991.
Cowan, Ruth Schwartz. "Automobiles and Automobility." In A Social History of American Technology, 224-48. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
Cronon, William. "Introduction." In Uncommon Ground: Toward Reinventing Nature, edited by William Cronon, 23-56. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1995.
———. "The Trouble with Wilderness; or, Getting Back to the Wrong Nature." In Uncommon Ground: Toward Reinventing Nature, edited by William Cronon, 69-90. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1995.
Dunn, James A. Driving Forces: The Automobile, Its Enemies, and the Politics of Mobility. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1998.
Marx, Leo. "Does Improved Technology Mean Progress?" Technology Review, January 1987: 33-41ff.
Pool, Robert. Beyond Engineering: How Society Shapes Technology. The Sloan Technology Series. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
Pucher, John R, et al. Consequences of the Interstate Highway System for Transit: Summary of Findings. Report / Transit Cooperative Research Program 42. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1998.
Rosenberg, Nathan, and L.E. Birdzell, Jr. "Science, Technology and the Western Miracle." Scientific American 263, no. 5 (November 1990): 42-54.
Smith, Merrit Roe. "Technology, Industrialization, and the Idea of Progress in America." In Responsible Science: The Impact of Technology on Society, edited by Kevin B. Byrne, 1-30. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1986.