Supriya Baily, Dawn Hathaway, and Margo Isabel

May 2006
Social Justice and Equity in International Education
George Mason University

Introduction
With a growing interest in social justice and its role in education and teacher preparation, some graduate schools of education are grappling with what social justice and equity means in the context of teaching and learning (Marshall, 2004). Increasingly, pre-service and in-service teachers are expected to understand those terms and express them in grade level appropriate ways. In light of the complexity this term has to U.S. born teachers, we, the researchers, were interested in understanding how immigrant teachers perceive of social justice and equity as it related to their teaching practice.

As faculty and students of a large state school on the east coast, we had been exposed to increasingly passionate debates around defining social justice and equity. The definitions included ideas and philosophies related to unity, opportunity, lack of bias, and communities built on principles of tolerance, equality, and justice. As can be expected, definitions met with critical feedback and questions of scope and depth. By looking at this inability to articulate a cohesive meaning for the terms, the researchers determined that the perceptions if immigrant teachers would be colored by their histories, their experiences overseas, and their current world view as they operated in the U.S. educational system. To this end, we as students in a doctoral program undertook this research as a final project related to our course work in a class on social justice and equity in international education to explore the perspectives of immigrant teachers on social justice and equity.

Professional Interest
Collectively, we as researchers and teacher educators have an interest in supporting immigrant teachers and their experiences. This is important as they navigate the United States educational system and engage themselves as active members of their new community.

Our lenses are as different as our different experiences will warrant. Supriya Baily comes to this research based on her experiences living both in the U.S. and overseas. Her work as an educator has given her a perspective that bridges the culture of the United States to that of other countries around world.

Dawn Hathaway was born in the Midwest region of the United States. Her first experience with diverse populations was as a radiation safety instructor for visiting researchers from around the world. As an educator in the public school system in the Washington D.C. metropolitan area, she has observed the challenges presented by increasing diversified populations in the public school system and the interactions among American and foreign born students and colleagues.

Margo Isabel, originally from New York, began her professional career as an immigrant teacher in Latin America, where she taught and was an administrator for elementary and secondary schools for ten years. She experienced first hand the challenge of adapting to a different language, culture and educational system. Those experiences have led her to develop programs and systems that support immigrant and minority teachers in the United States.

Together we have framed this study to explore how immigrant teachers perceive social justice and equity and have used our experiences to interpret our findings. This research is important because the recruitment of immigrant teachers is on the rise due to the fact that U.S. born teachers are retiring, migrating to the corporate world or not entering the profession for a variety of reasons. In addition, demographics in the U.S. are changing, requiring a teacher population that not only reflects the diverse student population but also provides a model for making connections among cultures. There is scarce literature on immigrant teachers and issues of social justice and equity as related to their teaching practices, tied in to the growing debate on these issues and their impact on school communities, citation.

Definition of Terms
For this study we have adopted Adams et al’s definition of social justice, “Social justice includes a vision of society in which the distribution of resources is equitable and all members are physically and psychologically safe and secure. We envision a society in which individuals are both self-determining (able to develop their full capacities), and interdependent (capable of interacting democratically with others). Social justice involves social actors who have a sense of their own agency as well as a sense of social responsibility toward and with others and the society as a whole” (Adams et al, 1997).

We have defined immigrant teachers in this study as foreign born and trained who are currently practicing teachers in the Washington D.C. metropolitan area.

Limitations
The main limitation of this study is the relatively brief amount of time that was allocated to data collection. Since the paper was a requirement as the final project for a class, we were only able to use the time period of a semester to collect data. The other limitation is geographical; we concentrated on teachers living only in the Washington DC metropolitan area.

Statement of the Research Problem
The research on social justice and equity does not situate immigrant teachers and their experience in the context of the topic. Therefore our research seeks to explore the perspectives of immigrant teachers on issues related to social justice and equity in their teaching practice.

Review of the Literature
The research in the area of social justice and equity and its effect and impact on teachers is slim. The main body of research focuses on teaching social justice at the school and university levels (Adam et al, 1997, Kumashiro, 2004 and McDonald, 2005) as well as some integration of themes of social justice and equity folded into teacher preparation programs. Since research on immigrant teachers in the US is close to non-existent, we reviewed research on immigrant teacher experiences that has emerged from Asia, Australia, Canada, and Israel.

For instance, McDonald conducted a qualitative and survey based study focusing on the integration of social justice in teaching programs by using conceptual and practical tools that emphasize the needs of oppressed students. For the purposes of this study social justice involved, but did not exclusively focus on: the distribution of goods across individuals; social relations and processes; individuals as members of social groups whose opportunities and experiences were informed but not determined by their affiliations; and attending to social group differences rather than negating them (McDonald, 2005). Though this study shows the recent influx of issues of social justice being addressed in teacher education programs, the rationale that teacher education programs must address social justice issue is to emphasize the needs of oppressed students does not account for the growing diversity in teacher populations. As student populations increasingly grow in diversity, teacher populations will echo those demographics as well.

Two essays describe some of the issues and theories behind the role social justice plays in school administrations and populations. Marshall in her article “Social Justice Challenges to Educational Administration: Introduction to a Special Issue,” acknowledges a lack of, as well as the need for, further preparation and attention to issues of social justice in top level educational administrative positions. Presently, issues of social justice are briefly inserted into on the job discussions and/or educational administration preparation programs. Resolving deep issues that stem from social justice concerns many times are simply labeled as management challenges; not enough attention is given to the underlying concerns and challenges, or to long-term solutions. Digging deeper, with the objective of changing attitudes or developing democratic definitions are non-existent (Marshall, 2004).

Presently, the majority of principals and superintendents are white males entering into retirement age (Marshall, 2004). With the needed new influx of educational leaders into the profession, the possibility to incorporate social justice concerns into areas of educational leadership widens. Specifically, social justice issues can be incorporated into policies, procedures and in-service programs. Not only will the prospect exist to infuse these issues into the practice of educational leaders, but also the opportunity to augment minorities and women into leadership positions. Marshall concludes by suggesting that preparation programs, hiring policies and school communities must embark upon a change-oriented attitude instead of simply tightening up old democratic educational systems (Marshall, 2004).

The second essay presents a social justice and equity issue on opposite side of Marshall’s essay. Looking at how domination of English as a language of higher education can hinder equal relationships especially as education becomes more multi-national. The essay confronts the “myths and realities” of how higher education is affecting globalization especially through “powerful universities” that have dominated the production and distribution of knowledge using English as the medium of instruction. Academia is dependent on English is the predominant language, with scientific journals publishing in English and international society meetings conducting the major portions of their work in English. These conditions place a premium on English fluency. This runs counter to the role of globalization, which encourages the migration of scholars (and as we learned from our research, also teachers) from less developed countries to developed countries without allowing for an equal playing field for those whose English remains a second language. The essay concludes the “global academic environment must first recognize the need to ensure that academic relationships are as equal as possible.” These essays have a direct connection to how immigrant teachers view social justice and equity, looking at how administrations in schools look at the issue, and how language plays an integral role in allowing for equitable working relationships (Altbach, 2004).

Other literature points to how teachers in other parts of the world look at social justice and equity. From Israel to Australia, researchers have shown that directly or indirectly teachers are affected by social justice and equity issues in their professional lives. Elbaz-Luwisch (2004) conducted a qualitative study of immigrant teachers practicing in Israel. The purpose of the study was to examine the stories of these immigrant teachers who have made the transition from teaching in one culture to teaching in another. This study uses not only the stories of the seven teachers but also the story of the researcher to understand what the process of making a place for oneself is like. The rationale for this study was the rarity of research on immigrant teachers.

The findings focused on four main themes: holding on and holding together, feeling like a fake, learning how to behave, and conflict with the system. Descriptions of these findings addressed:

1. Holding on/holding together: the immigrant teachers frequently made comparisons of their new teaching environment and the teaching environment in their homeland and that the immigrant teacher can only go on about their homeland experience for so long before they are categorized as a chronic complainer.

2. Feeling like a fake: the immigrant teachers reported that obtaining a position because they could speak English did not make them feel legitimate in the position.

3. Learning how to behave: the immigrant teachers told stories of how they behaved inappropriately at times because of the lack of understanding of language or culture.

4. Conflict with the system: As an outsider the immigrant teachers felt they had information to critique the system (comparison with homeland system and experiences from other places), but felt that no one in the new system cared to hear about their ideas (Elbaz-Luwisch, 2004).

These themes are important, as we have found some overlap with what teachers in other parts of the world feel in similar situations. Remennick (2002) examined the occupational needs for professional integration for immigrant Russian teachers who have different culture and language from the Israeli’s where they were teaching. The barriers these teachers faced included language, curriculum, new school culture, and student-teacher relationships. Those immigrant teachers who had mastered the language of the local area reported more successful experiences. Teachers were found to leave the profession due to a lack of discipline among the students and the lack of respect for teachers’ authority. Therefore, from the perspectives of the immigrant teachers, successful teaching occurred when the local language was mastered, the curriculum was understood and implemented accordingly, the school culture was clear and that immigrant teachers developed relationship with students. The immigrant teachers also believed that they had to resist negative stereotyping by their colleagues. This research also sheds light on the tremendous amount of responsibility placed on the shoulders of an immigrant teacher that native teachers do not have to contend with (Remennick, 2002).

Seah’s (2003) qualitative study of immigrant secondary mathematics teachers in Australia identified the interplay of personal and cultural values in the transition immigrant teachers make from their professional practice in their home culture to their new practice in Australia. Developing a detailed structure of “values” Seah’s findings indicate that the environment of immigrant mathematics teachers in Australia is supportive of immigrants’ values and do not demand conformity to the local culture. The data indicated that teachers received minimal professional support, specifically in the area of mathematical development and practice and that support was solely management related. This suggests that teachers relied heavenly on their personal and professional value systems to compensate for differences as well as to strengthen their practice. Seah concludes that this ability to successfully transition across cultural-educational borders may be transferable to other settings where differences play a role.

Seah’s work in Australia continues with her work with Bishop in (2002) with some exploration into the “value differences” and conflicts encountered by two immigrant mathematics teachers as well as to identify the responsive strategies used by the teachers in to approach these differences in their practice. Using two immigrants to study, one from Romania, and the other from Fiji, who was of Indian descent, the findings showed that there was a clear acknowledgement of difference in the conceptual and sequential mathematical concepts from their home countries to their new classrooms.

Though they adapted their strategies, there was an acceptance of value differences and engagement in a process that enabled them to effectively carry out instruction. They did not seek ways to eliminate difference, but used strategies to interact with the culture of the classroom and country and arrive at a personal consensus between two sets of values. The ability of immigrant teachers to negotiate value differences in their practice is a positive sign for both the educational communities receiving these teachers as well as for the teachers themselves (Bishop and Seah, 2002).

Using one case to make the example, Bascia studied the life history of a Black Indian-Asian immigrant teacher, Edgar, raised in the Caribbean where he received a professional teacher’s degree. Bascia found that the findings from “Edgar’s” life history were consistent with both the literature reviewed by Bascia on immigrant teachers where:

1. The relationships Edgar established with his students moved beyond a typical relationship to a bond which including his advocating for his students. This stemmed from the similar experiences Edgar had as a child and adult constantly moving across cultural boundaries.

2. Edgar faced various challenges as he developed a professional identity in Canada. He felt that others looked at him differently as a “black man” and did not give him the credible voice he deserved. The professional development opportunities he requested were frequently denied. Edgar states that white superiors have a difficult time accepting that minority teachers have a lot to offer to their society and thus do not support them in their journey.

3. Collegiality and teamwork were superficial. He was welcomed into his colleagues’ classrooms and provided support; however, he felt that his colleagues did not equally share his commitment to immigrant students. He felt undervalued and considered some of his professional interactions to be superficial.

4. As a teacher leader Edgar influenced the social political and cultural contexts of teaching. He reached out to families, colleagues and the community by sharing professional, personal and academic expertise, both as a means to satisfy his strong internal moral purpose as well as to effect change and encourage equity.

Bascia’s conclusions from the life history project coincide with other researchers. She states that, “Race, gender or any other categories that differentiate teachers socially from one another can produce systematic patterns of organizational advantage and disadvantage; differentiated access to knowledge; different decision making authority, and different legitimacy and status (Bascia, 1996 p. 166).”

Finally, there is some research into how language is a major barrier for recent immigrants and cultural difference in social histories constrains even the most informal of socializing. Asian American employees in Silicon Valley perceived differential treatment because of deficiencies in language and interpersonal skills. Differential treatment was perceived as exclusion to networks outside their own circles and a lack of promotion into management positions (Woo, 1994).

Research methods
In order to obtain a personalized and insightful answer to our research question: how do immigrant teachers in the Washington DC area perceive issues of social justice and equity in relation to their teaching practice? - we chose to adopt a qualitative research design. To attain deep and descriptive chunks of data aimed to capture the personal insight of practicing immigrant teachers, the researchers chose to purposely sample immigrant teachers from the Washington DC metro area. This purposeful sample consisted of the seven practicing teachers indicated in the table below:

It was important to the three researchers to have a diverse group of immigrant teacher participants. Our definition of an immigrant teacher for the purpose of this study was a teacher presently teaching in the Washington DC area, born outside of the United States, with a bachelors or equivalent degree from his/her native country. It was also important to us that both male and female teachers be represented, and that a variety of races and/or ethnicities be included. We also ensured that both private and public school experiences were sought.

Pedro is a fifth and sixth grade Spanish teacher. This is his fourth year at Forest Knoll, a private school in Fairfax County. Prior to Forest Knoll, and following his Masters in Education program at the University of West Virginia, Pedro taught High School Spanish for one year at a public school in Morgantown, WV.
Sarah is presently a fourth grade teacher at Forest Knolls. This is her fifth year in the United States and at Forest Knoll. Prior to Forest Knoll she taught 4th grade at a boys’ private school in Johannesburg, South Africa. Sarah is a very active member of the elementary school Inclusive School Committee. She is a role model for multicultural practice and has effected positive change throughout the elementary school program.

It is important to note that both Pedro and Sarah work in the same school, a private JK-12 school in Northern Virginia, where one of the researchers serves as assistant principal in the elementary school section. She is also an Elementary School Spanish Coordinator and chairs the school wide (JK-12) inclusive school committee, a faculty/staff committee that works to implement a set of seven diversity goals approved by the school administration. She shares with Pedro a passion for language and culture, especially the Hispanic culture. They have a friendly relationship and talk in the hallways. Pedro teaches in the middle school and thus does not work directly in her division. Sarah has a strong working relationship with the researcher. Since Sarah teaches in the elementary school the researcher does serve a supervisory role. The researcher has known Sarah and Pedro for four years; she has a good perspective on their overall educational and diversity oriented views. Her knowledge of their perspectives is strong enough to conclude that they would be straightforward and open with sharing their experiences and beliefs.

Knowing and working with these two teachers adds to the richness of the data. It allowed her to reflect on prior experiences while collecting and analyzing the data.

Thea is a public High School ESOL teacher in Springfield, Virginia. Prior to her present position she was a kindergarten assistant in McLean Virginia for over ten years. Thea, a graduate student at a local university was recommended by a colleague in the doctoral program.

Alberto taught high school Spanish, at a Catholic school in Maryland. He did not train to be a teacher in El Salvador; rather he came to teaching from his extensive work with juveniles and vocational training placement for them, both in El Salvador and in the United States. Similarly, Lily was not trained as a teacher in Manila, Philippines; rather she studied mass communication at the university there. Alberto and Lily were also recommended to the researchers.

Jackie was born in Lebanon but spent most of her life in Canada. She completed her teacher education in Montreal and taught for two years in Canada before moving to the United States when she married her American husband. She had taught Chemistry and French in the same public school for eight years. The researcher who interviewed Jackie is also her instructor in the graduate program in which she is currently enrolled. Jackie had never presented herself as an immigrant teacher during the program and there had been no previous discussions about her experiences.

Lucia was born in Mexico and received her teacher training in Mexico City. She practiced speech therapy for one year in Mexico before being recruited as a bilingual teacher by the public school division in Elgin, Illinois. She later came to Washington D.C. to teach in a public language immersion school where she focuses on Spanish immersion for primary grades. She had been teaching in the U.S. for five years. Lucia was an advisee of one of the researchers and was recommended by the researcher who did not though conduct the interview.

The three researchers designed a semi-structured interview protocol. The protocol went through three revisions and was then approved by the Associate Professor of International Education, also the professor and advisor to this research project. Considering the amount of interviews scheduled, one of the researchers was able to conduct an item analysis of the questions after she had conducted the second interview and determined that the questions were adequately addressed. The validity of the instrument was assured.

Considering the varied perspectives and lens of the three researchers, we chose to inductively analyze the data in order to ensure a creative synthesis from data collected from the diverse perspectives of immigrant teachers. Categories were first determined by each individual researcher based on the interviews that they conducted. At weekly sessions the researchers shared their categories and identified similarities between the data and discussed plausible interpretations. After synthesizing the categories we agreed on the following themes in regards to the teachers’ perceptions on issues of social justice and equity: Language as a handicap and a solution, spirit and perseverance and navigating the new land while connecting with homeland.

Our consensus of themes led us to, once again, work individually, return to our data and select thick, rich quotes in support of each theme.

Findings
In this study we hoped to gain a clear picture of the perceptions of immigrant practicing teachers as related to issues of social justice and equity. When we discussed social justice and equity with the teachers, the responses were almost always couched in experiences that teachers had been through rather than in the more theoretical way as defined by Adams et al (2002). We found that social justice was not a clearly identifiable term for the teachers but a notion that was naturally integrated into their professional and life experiences:

Jackie: “[In terms of social justice] I think about [how] people from another country are treated in…jobs, employment…to get advancement…treated equally.
Alberto: “Here, how I see, you know, social justice, is that you as an immigrant you have to really, you have to proved everything that you are capable, it’s like you got to demonstrate…”
Lucia: “For me its how we are perceived and accepted here…what people think about immigrants and how they treat us. For me it is hared to define because they treat you how they see you. Like lower income immigrants are very different to the middle class…”

As we delved deeper into the experiences of the immigrant teachers, we discovered that their perceptions on issues of social justice and equity are colored by three themes:

1. Language as a handicap and a solution,
2. Sense of spirit and perseverance and
3. Navigating the new land while staying connected to the homeland.

Language: Handicap and Solution
It is not surprising that language and culture posed a handicap to these teachers. The teaching profession relies on awareness and understanding of language and culture of the students. The experience of new language and culture elicited a strong response from the teachers because of the reactions from their American colleagues, students and parents. However for some of the teachers, it was merely an accent that built walls around them.

Jackie: “…the problem I had was the language, the accent barrier...I just was not used to teaching in English…”
The other teachers had similar experiences as well. Having an accent or a less than perfect command of the English language prevented the sharing of ideas among colleagues and parents.
Lucia: “… [with] my accent they didn’t understand so they [colleagues] would start talking to someone else.”
Lucia: “They [parents] talk to the English teacher every time. Even when you tell them in the meeting ‘… English is not my first language but I can talk to you whenever you need.’ But they always prefer going with the English teacher.”

Lucia: “I don’t feel that I have the power or how you want to call it, to say the ideas of everyone in the group, like I won’t have the vocabulary to tell what everyone wants to say. Like I would never say, Okay, I’ll share.”

It appears that the lack of cultural sensitivity of American colleagues, parents and students increased feelings of being misunderstood more so than the actual accent or the occasional misused English word
Pedro: “…you feel out of the loop or on the periphery … because you are not born here and they assume that you do not know what is going on.”

Lily: “…Americans whites, the Caucasians, they still have their biases about foreigners, like sometimes they are amazed. The other day they were asking me, ‘Why do you speak English so well?’ and I said, ‘Why not?’

Alberto: “… sometimes people don’t feel comfortable with my accent, for example in English, uh, the way people, in certain areas of my school, they assume, or they uh, believe that I should act exactly like them, all the protocols, even the sense of humor is different.”

Alberto: “…you mispronounce a word in English, that’s an issue…it doesn’t become an issue you’re [the student] learning Spanish, it becomes an issue that I didn’t say this correctly in English.”

Jackie: “…the principal called me in his office, and complained about that. He goes, ‘Jackie, some parents have been calling me…their children are having problems understanding you.’

According to Jackie, it was the principal’s choice to side with parental pressure
rather than addressing issues of cultural awareness or insensitivity that left her feeling “minimized…that’s the word I felt like. Minimized…because of my accent”.
Interestingly, immigrant teachers from other English speaking countries are not spared the feelings of being an outsider. Sarah remembers her first year teaching in the United States dedicated mainly to the translation of academic and social terminology from her native South African English to American English:
Sarah: “I remember one time…saying, ‘what are they talking about? I don’t understand what they said.’ We were talking about what the kids had to wear for graduation, lower school, and they were talking about fancy dress, and fancy dress to me is when you can dress in a costume like for Halloween…”

While feelings of inferiority, incompetence, and isolation precipitated from language misunderstandings, language also served as a solution to becoming a participating member in the new community. Thea’s experience in learning the English language defines her purpose and identity as a teacher of immigrant students:
Thea: “It is my job to make them see what they need to do and accept their priorities I ask them about what they want in life, what they want to do, and they don’t know, we talk about to achieve anything what do you want or need? You need the language to communicate, you have to know English.”

For Jackie, it was the language of her discipline that allowed her to immediately find a home and an identity within her school. Being able to talk the talk of chemistry gave Jackie a familiar context in which to communicate with her colleagues in language understood by all:
Jackie: “…they just welcomed me with big arms and they helped me right away…We are science people and I think we are different than the other people in the school.”

It was also the issue of limited language that motivated the immigrant teachers to give great effort to becoming “better”.
Lucia: “I think it was more like a challenge for me cause if I wouldn’t practice my English, they [American colleagues] didn’t care. I was the one that would have to fight to be here…”

The incident with the principal and her accent motivated Jackie to work on her practice as a teacher:
Jackie: “I just felt like I wanted to try to improve, to get better…not my accent but be a better teacher…I took a lot of classes [in the United States].”

Pedro, on the other hand, acknowledges that one can work hard at learning a language and become bilingual. However, even then new obstacles may arise as one attempts to absorb the culture of a different country:
Pedro: “Learning a foreign language is life process as well as the culture…you can be a bilingual person but to be a bicultural person it takes pretty much longer, not language but cultural barriers. It is not a language issue anymore [but] understanding the mentality of a different culture.”

Exposure to a new language and culture posed challenges for the immigrant teachers. These challenges were intensified by a lack of cultural awareness of U.S. colleagues, parents, and students. Rather than defeating the teachers, each were motivated to adjust in the new land and this motivation highlights their sense of spirit and perseverance that was evident in the interviews.

Spirit and Perseverance
The views on social justice and equity issues were also colored by the teachers’ own sense of spirit and perseverance. This spirit could sometimes affect the teachers in both a positive and/or negative way. The immigrant teachers conveyed a sense of spirit, a determination and strengthened mind that was derived from a perception of self. Many of the teachers felt privileged to be in the U.S. because they were recruited for teaching positions, graduate school programs, and they felt they had options available to them:

Sarah: “…one of the reasons I chose Forest Knoll was because of the diversity. I always wanted to be in a place where I am with people from different places, backgrounds and different cultures…I think we are appreciated.”

Thea: “I think this is paradise [the U.S.]. Everyone comes here to look for liberty and social justice. And to me I found them all. I have been treated very well…I think it is…how you perceive yourself…even though I was an instructional assistant, I was treated like a teacher, so I behaved like one…they want you to fulfill your dreams, your goals, your potential. I was recommended for the [graduate] program.”

Jackie: “Imagine! Three schools waned to hire me and I didn’t have my paperwork yet!”

Lucia: “I feel was very fortunate because they came to Mexico to hire us…they pay us for the professional development. For all us Mexicans, it was like, ‘Oh, they are paying us!’ I didn’t have to fight to have a job…I felt important, like they needed me.”

For Pedro, the perceptions of himself as an experienced teacher and a representative of the Spanish culture affected his views of fairness and value.
Pedro: “[In the public schools] they respect my degree, experience…there is a pay scale. I felt I belonged in that pay scale [and] they would put you where you are in that scale. It was really fair.”

When Pedro had the opportunities to socialize with U.S. teachers who had studied in his homeland of Spain, he felt valued.
Pedro: “…it was an honor for them to meet me…they listened to me and asked me lots of things. It varies immensely. Others just don’t show their [interest].”

When he was not given the respect that he feels he deserves, Pedro’s sense of spirit is attacked, evident in his feelings of frustration and invalidation.
Pedro: “Some people [in America] don’t have the curiosity of expanding their knowledge about…learning to speak Spanish or a way of life. It can be frustrating.”

Pedro: “…because of my VISA type, I am only allowed to work as a Spanish teacher…I have degrees, and I feel sometimes that you are over qualified to do your job but at times you feel undervalued as a professional.”

While Pedro’s spirit may have been under attack, he indicated that these feelings can be overcome by learning. “You have to learn your way as you experience more as time goes by.”
This perseverance was evident throughout the interviews. Faced with the challenge of new language and culture, the teachers turned to what they knew best to solve problems: education.
Alberto: “I think that if you want to continue being a teacher, and feel part of this country you have to keep educating yourself and participating so that you can educator more people about the teacher issues, everything that is going on in your schools environment.”

Alberto: “After I have finished my formal education here, you see, I may get more involved in certain issues in the community that are more related to education, because the only way to change peoples misconceptions, is by informing them, is by pressuring politicians.”

Alberto: “You have to work really and to be accepted, you have to get formal education…”

Sarah: “…coming in with the U.S. history, I really knew that I had to do a lot of research and that I looked at it as a fun thing. I mean I needed to learn about these things that I had to teacher.”

Thea: “One’s responsibilities go beyond your job description. I like to learn. All my experience has helped me with my job.”

Sarah revealed how her spirited self is linked to her experiences in South Africa as and is continually encouraged by the supportive atmosphere in her current school:
Sarah: “South African people, although they have been through this very difficult time of apartheid, we are incredibly optimistic. We always look into the good of each situation. We laugh a lot and we try to turn bad situation s into good.”

Sarah: “I think that is what the school does so well. It makes anybody regardless of your background really feel like it is where you belong.”

Sarah’s remarks give us a glimpse of how her experiences in apartheid South Africa impacted her spirit but also how support in the new community allows that spirit to flourish. Her statements also show how important homeland experiences can be in a teacher’s ability to connect and navigate in the United States.
Connecting and Navigating: Homeland and the U.S.
The teacher perceptions of issues of social justice and equity in the U.S. are painted through scenes of homeland experiences. Several of the teachers described what social injustice and inequities looked like in their homelands:
Lily: “In terms of education in the Philippines, if you are rich, you can go to a private school and there they have money to fund all the textbooks…If you are poor…you get used books [or] you don’t get books so where is the social justice there?”

Alberto: “I could actually be accused of being a communist just by having a sociology book, by having a Carlos Marx book for example. We studied sociology in every school…so we have to hide those books.”

In the case of Alberto his experience allowed him to be more aware of how immigrant status is viewed in the U.S.:
Alberto: “Issues of social injustice exist in El Salvador, and I realized that what is actually changed here [in America] is that in the beginning you become a second-class citizen. You can be a naturalized American citizen but you will never be an American.”

Often the teachers would use their own experiences to build a connection to their new home. These teachers deeply wanted to make a difference in the lives of their students. Their connections to homeland often impacted their teaching with the hope to enlighten students about how others have faced the challenges brought on by injustices.
Sarah: “Coming here and being able to reflect with the children on the American whites against the native Americans or African Americans has been so exciting because I can share the heartaches that I had from living in a segregated environment…to think about atrocities of the past and move on.”

Thea: “I want them [immigrant students] to know that I care, and not just by saying it, I am willing to stay after school…I want them to know that I came from the same situation. I overcame the English [as a second language]…”

Lucia: “I would love to stay in the bilingual setting…right now I don’t feel I’m serving the bilingual [population]. I think I would help better to the kids [immigrants] because right now I am serving sons and daughters of ambassadors who really doesn’t need it [bilingual assistance].

Pedro: “They [the students] like me very much…they see me as different…from another country…they have been very receptive…because you bring a different way.”

Making connections to the new land sometimes meant giving up practices and beliefs about the homeland in order to navigate with ease or acceptance the U.S. system. When Lucia compared her experience as a teacher in Mexico with her new position in the U.S., she points out that she has become more like an American teacher:
Lucia: “The classrooms [in Mexico] are totally different. I was amazed of having too many materials like I would never have that in Mexico. I was amazed of people [American colleagues] of putting in the garbage half of the paper that I would take [in Mexico] for all year!”

Lucia admitted to changing her ways about conserving paper because it is more convenient to be like the American teachers. Jackie found that talking about her Canadian experience elicited little interest from her colleagues:
Jackie: “I don’t bring that issue us [about being from Canada] very often. I used to when I started. I always used to complain, ‘Well in Canada, we have this and in Canada we have that.’ [I didn’t get] no reaction. Not interested, not wanting to know more. I don’t believe it is worth it…At lunch we rarely talk about immigrants…I tried to bring that up when I first came but no one wanted to talk about it.”

Jackie instead took on what she considered challenges within the U.S. educational system, challenges about which American teachers complain. These include the lack of freedom given to teachers in their curriculum, the overwhelming expectations placed on teachers today, and the need to document every interaction with students and parents.

The conversations show how valuable immigrant teachers are to the U.S. educational system, especially in a time when the demographics are rapidly changing. The ability to have teachers who are sympathetic and understanding of immigrant students with language challenges is a great asset to schools facing diversity issues. In addition, the spirit and perseverance in which the immigrant teachers convey by sharing their culture and experiences and in navigating through U.S. culture, serves as a model to others in similar situations. By acknowledging and supporting their spirit and perseverance, schools in the Washington D.C. metropolitan area may not only help them through the meaningful process of navigating a new land, but also establish a solid foundation in support of an increasing minority population.

Conclusions
We were amazed by the overall positive feeling that the immigrants exuded throughout the interviews. As professionals whose work, as Remennick (2002) describes “is deeply embedded in local culture, mentality, and language” (p. 101), the immigrant teachers were able to face challenges of new language and culture by finding solutions, calling upon their sense of determination, and connecting their homeland experience to assist them in navigating the U.S. systems. To understand from where these solutions and determinations developed, it is necessary to view them both as immigrants and teachers.

As immigrants some of the participants had faced challenges in their homeland, which informed them in strategies to deal with obstacles. They arrived in the U.S. with a stamina cultivated by observation of and/or experience with injustice and inequitable practices in the homeland. Sarah’s experience in pre and post apartheid as well as Alberto’s life in civil war ravaged El Salvador fortified their spirit and provided them with the strength to overcome obstacles in the new land.

As teachers, it is a habit of mind, a professional mantra, that education is the key to solving problems. The immigrant teachers in this study relied on education to improve their status. Education, as means to better themselves and as a means to share their cultural knowledge with others, gave them hope and raised their spirits that they had the ability to overcome obstacles. Education gave them options to help them practice the new language, immersed them in the culture of the new land, and provided them an opportunity to share their homeland experiences. The immigrant teachers engaged themselves in both formal educational activities such as graduate school programs and sought out informal avenues of learning. Pedro for instance continues to seek out books and additional learning materials to learn about the new culture. Sarah indicated during her interview that she did lots of research to learn about the topics that she had never taught before, but now in her new job, faced different teaching responsibilities. As a result of being teachers, these immigrant teachers knew that learning played a role in the transition process and as part of their profession, they had the tools to lead them on a learning path.

As immigrant teachers in a country with changing demographics these individuals had options available in the U.S. educational system. Choices and opportunities gave them a sense of freedom and allowed them to be immune from some of the constraints faced by uneducated immigrants. The immigrant teachers in this study clearly viewed themselves as privileged or different from non-teacher immigrants. Lucia best supports this conclusion when asked to identify some issues of social justice immigrants might face:
Lucia: “Like me as a teacher or for any other immigrants?”

In addition, the immigrant teachers are not only models of good teaching practices; their presence in U.S. schools brings the issue of cultural awareness among colleagues, parents, and students to the forefront. While the demographics in U.S. schools are changing, there still exists moments of insensitivity:
Lily: “…and then the little comments, like this morning someone at the office said, ‘Today is Bookfair, and watch all our little Latino friends dressed up as Superman,’ with a smirk in her face. It was [supposed to be a] book character, so you have to dress up as a book character, and I thought that was a little nasty because then she whistled and signaled her hand over her head mean[ing] to say it flew over their heads; they didn’t understand.”

More interaction with immigrant teachers and the opportunity to understand their viewpoints may increase the sensitivity and cultural awareness of colleagues, parents and students.
This study not only highlights the value of immigrant teachers in providing American colleagues, parents and students an opportunity for cultural awareness but also how issues of social justice and equity are perceived on an individual level. It is possible that issues of social justice and equity are difficult to relate to on a personal level because it is more of a group phenomenon. The definition of social justice from Adams et al (1997) describes social justice in terms of a society. As individual transplants from other countries, these teachers had only their own experiences as an immigrant to discuss. They did not identify themselves as part of a larger immigrant population but more as educated individuals who came to the U.S because of recruitment by U.S. school divisions, marriage, or just to be a teacher in a country that offered more security than their homeland.

For many researchers (Marshall, 2004; Bascia, 1996) the concept of social justice and equity carries a level of abstraction and complexity, yet we did not see the same abstractions carry over in our data. The immigrant teachers in almost all cases approached the themes of social justice and equity as experiential and related directly to their actions as teachers and employees in U.S. bureaucracies. The teachers in our study provided real-life examples, incidents, and memories of how social justice translated itself into various other concepts like fairness, bias, discrimination, and inter-cultural relationships for example. This information can be helpful, as mentioned at the beginning of this paper, to combat some of the discomfort around “defining” social justice and equity by educators and teaching institutions. Recognizing that teachers do not take the same abstract approach in looking at social justice and equity may also open the discussion to how real life experiences color these issues as well.

The definition of social justice and equity may also depend on an individual’s experience in their homeland and events that shape the views of injustice and inequities in that particular country. In the U.S. issues of social justice and equity may be viewed through the lens of slavery, the Civil Rights movement, the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II, or the rights of women to vote. In South Africa, it is viewed through the lens of apartheid. Thea’s experience in Vietnam formed her view that an injustice country considers disabilities as a “sin or a crime, or shame.” With this in mind, it is possible that as researchers, we were not able to extract certain information about social justice and equity because our interview questions may have been asked through the lens of what social justice and equity mean in the U.S. While the participants each represented a different part of the world, our research was limited by the small number of participants interviewed. We recommend further exploration with more individuals and to allow more time to interview and observe the individuals.

Because the interviews were not conducted in the native language of the immigrant teachers, valuable understanding and meaning about issues of social justice may have been lost. Sarah points out the importance of having a British teacher in her school because she felt she had someone to which she could relate. This could be true in the interview setting where immigrant teachers may not have felt a relationship to the researcher or was not able to articulate their perspectives adequately in English.
Finally the environments in which these immigrant teachers are working in the U.S. are quite different from their homeland. Lucia expressed amazement at the vast amount of available resources for teachers to use in the classroom, the availability of professional development and educational opportunities for teachers, the equal treatment given to disabled students and how immigrant teachers are treated fairly by their employers. The U.S. educational environment surpasses conditions found in other countries, especially in the homelands of the immigrant teachers interviewed for this study. Therefore, everything looks better here and the issues of social justice may have overshadowed or blurred.

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